Title: c/p

Q: heat equation (specific heat)
A: q = mct
specific heat is specific to the amount of mass
heat capacity is C
specific heat is C / m
during a latent phase change is q = mL

Q: Titrations
what are they for
tell me about acid/base vs redox
A: to find the concentration of a solution using an indicator.
the end point is the volume it takes to change the color
 acid base is using acid and bases to neutralize
redox is using redox lol
make sure you balance the equation then use MV = MV or M = mol / L for safer side.
There can be impurities in redox reactions that makes it so you need more of the known concentration to reach the equivalence point of the analyte. If an impurity like a metal is also being oxidized or reduced it could take more.

Q: when do hydrogen bonds happen
A: When H which is slightly positive because a F O or N hog electrons

Q: DNA structure
explain what it looks like
what are the three components
why are they different directions
A: phosphate group nitrogen base and deoxyribose. no oxygen on 2'

Q: what are hemiacetals and acetals
what is a glycoside and what happens
A: acetal has to OR groups
When a carbohydrate becomes a acetal via the leaving of water. and that is a glycosidic linkage.
the links can be broken with water as well.

Q: Carb cyclic structures
How does the ring get created
which parts are above or below the ring
A: downright, uplefting
D-sugar is the 6 carbon pointing up.
The oxygen attack could make it so the hydroxyl group should be in the same side of the 6 carbon in the equatorial position called the beta position. or it could be in the axial position which is the alpha position.
mutarotation is the equilibrium of the a and b anomers. glucose is present 64% of the time bc of steric hindrance

Q: pyranose vs furanose
aldose vs ketose
A: pyranose is 6 sided ring
furanose is 5 sided ring.
aldose is when you have one R group
in a ketose you have 2 R groups

alpha vs beta glycosidic linkages

Q: keto - enol tautemors
what are they
acid vs base catalyzed
A: en means double bond ol is from the oxygen
acid
base
goes from sp3 to sp2.
resonance sometimes stabalizes the enol form but ketol form way more common

what is a carbonyl group
what does aldehyde
ketone
ester
carboxylic acid look like

Q: Everything about chromatography
paper chromatography
thin layer chromatogrpahy
column chromatography
size exchange
ion exchange
HPLC
affinity
gas
A: mobile phase and stationary phase
stationary phase is the paper. mobile phase is some sort of solvent.
TLC - happens through capillary action. classic plate. whatever travels further can separate your compound. Silica gel is super polar. so what travels further up is less polar. one is more attracted is more polar bc it travels less.
For TLC retention factors Rf -
distance traveled by solute / distance traveled by solvent
column usually has some silica gel. you pour the solute and whatever goes down first is less polar. comes out in bands.
size exchange you have beads that separate based on size. smaller can go far fast
ion exchange separate by charge. same charge will go down quick
affinity depends on binding affinity
HPLC almost same as column but its more sensitive
gas lower boiling point come out faster. shows up in a chromatogram. first peak is usually your solvent bc its at a lower boiling point. second peak is what comes out first. separation by boiling points. if they have similar boiling points, you can still separate based on size.

Q: Infrared Spectrum
what is wave number
what is hooks law
A: energy of the light causes the stretching of the bond.
wave number is one over the wavelength in cm
wave number is frequency
F = -kX is hooks law and explains the tuggling. negative because of restoring force.
stronger bonds vibrate faster
increase the k increases the frequency
increase the mass and it decreases the frequency so it shows up more to the right.`
sp is 50% s character which means electrons are closest to nucleus
sp2 is 33% s electrons are a litte further
sp3 is 25% s so even weaker
stronger dipole moment is a stronger signal
OH hydrogen bond has a broad signal
OH is a sharp signal around 3600
asymmetric signal takes more energy because its asymetric stretch. primary amine. symetric stretch shows too but less energy
1600's is double bond stretch. 2000s is triple bond stretch
C=C is not that strong
C=O is a strong signal
resonance makes it a weaker signal so more towards the right.

Q: Current Equations
A: I = Q / t where Q is charge and t is time
I = V / R where V is voltage and R is resistance
P = I V where P is power and V is voltage

Q: periodic table trends
atomic radius
effective charge
ionization energy
electonegative
electrostatic force, ionization force, electron affinity, EN
radius
metallic properties.
A: atomic radius - distance from center to outermost electric cloud
effective charge - the effective nuclear charge is the amount of positive charge experienced by electorn. there is shielding so its never the full positve charge.
ionization energy - energy required to get rid of electrons
EN - measure of atom ability to attract and bind with electrons
electorn affinity - amount of energy released when a electron is added to neutral atom.
electrostatic force, ionization force, electron affinity, EN up to the right
radius, metallic properties is down and left

Q: NMR spectroscopy
A: looks at hydrogen
any hydrogens across symettry are identical so equivalent and same singal
splitting. is n+1 rule. 1 + number of adjacent hydrogens
integration how many hydrogens there are. the number of H+s make it taller.
shifts. downfield is from more electron sheilding.
left to right. more downfield is more downsheilding.
carboxylic aldehyde aromatic halides alkanes.

Q: conductivity in resistors
A: look at the value decreased. and use V = IR to deduce
resistivity directly proportinioal to resistance

Q: ortho meta para
A: ortho is adjacent
meta is 2 away
para is opposite

Q: distillation what is it
what is fractional distillation.
distillation curve
simple
fractional
vacuum
A: distillation separating based on boiling point
fractional distillation used for closer together boiling points.
simple is more mixture
simple - ideal for compounds greater than 25 degrees apart
fractional - ideal for compounds less than 25 apart
vacuum - ideal ofr compounds with high boiling points to prevent decomposition.

Q: everything about voltage current
ohms law
kirchoffs loop rule
current
voltage
resistance
what way does current flow ( is it constant)
resistance in series or parallel.
A: V = IR
kirchoffs rule is
0 = V - IR - IR - IR for each resistor
In a series both resistors have the same current. in parallel it is split. look at the voltage drop across a system.
electrons flow from neutral side to positive side.
Series = R + R
Parallel = 1/ R = 1/ R + 1/R

Q: waves and sound
equations
what is period and wavelength
decibel scale
A: propagation speed = v = f wavelength
f = 1/s
angular frequency is the w = 2pif = 2pi / T
for sound
fastest in solids and slowest in gas
have to change the medium. bulk modulus is the stiffness or rigidness of a medium. each molecule is more interconnected so disturbance are transmitted faster.
speed of sound in air at 20C is 343 m/s
sound is a wave. they transport energy through medium without moving the medium itself.
period is the time it takes for one cycle of a wave.
frequency is the 1/ T
higher notes have higher frequencies
humans can hear from 20 HZ to 20000 Hz
dogs can hear up to 40000 Hz
the distance between two peaks
speed is the amount a wavelength moves per period
the only way to change the speed of sound is the medium itself. like changing humidity or moisture or different metals.
Decibel scale
Intensity = Power / Area = W / m2
J / s = W
Intensity is proportional to 1 / r^2
ultrasound is greater than 20000 Hz
high frequency low wavelength is less diffraction

Q: standing waves / resonance
open
closed
A: point that doesnt move is a node
point that moves a lot is antinode
different harmonics in a open tube.
wavelength = 2L / n where n is number of nodes
standing wave in open is 2L  but fundamnetal on closed is 4L
open has anti node node anti node
but open has anti node and end as the node

Q: doppler effect
equation
A: o over s
objet over source.
v is speed of sound

Q: specific gravity
A: the ratio of density of an object and the liquid its submerged in
so if ur specific gravity is 0.75 that means that 75% of the object will be submerged in the liquid.

Q: hydrostatic pressure equation to find the pressure of fluid at a certain point
A: P = density * g * h
atmospheric pressure is the pressure expereinced by objects at sea level
1 atm is 760 mm HG
1 atm is 101325 Pa

Q: rate of reaction
equation
A: rate = k[A][B]
order of reaction is sum of exponents
units of rate constant depend on overall order of reaction
like if A is to 1
and B is to 2
then k  will be 1 / s*M^2

Q: SN1 and SN2
rate determining step
leaving groups
solvents on sn1 or sn2
A: SN1
rate determining step is concentration of the substrate not the nucleophile. no effect on rate by increasing the nucleophile
the alkyl groups donate to stabalize the carbocation
attacks from both sides and make enantiomers
methyl shift to make the carbocation more stable
SN2
only one step
depends on both the substrate and the nuclephile because the leaving group leaves at the same time as being attacked.
increaisng frequency of collision
tertiary alkyl halide has so much steric hindrance.
this is best for a primary alkyl halide.
attacks from opposite side.
Leaving groups
more atomic number is more stable
-pka are good leaving group
bad leaving groups
Solvents
polar protic favors sn1
polar aprotic favors sn2
The DMSO interacts with the Na+ and the steric hindrance favors the nucleo phile attacking substrate

oxidizing agents (gain of C-O vs C-H)
reducing agents
PCC

Q: optical activity
rotations
right vs left
the formula
A: right is destroratory
left is levorotatory
R can be - or +
only chiral compounds can be optically active.

Q: lenses
focal length
mirrors
concave
convex
lens
height relationship
A: 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di
focal length is half of the radius of curvature
in a concave mirror focal length is +
in a convex mirror focal length is -
convex lens is + focal length
concave lens is - focal length
hi / ho = di / do = m
convex lenses are converging and produce real and inverted images
concave lenses are diverging and produce virtual and upright images
m = -di / do

Q: kinetic friction
A: F = mg
coefficient of kinetic friction is u
F = u F = u mg

Q: law of conservation of energy
A: E = PE + KE = constant
PE = mgh
KE = 1/2 mv^2

Q: cardiac output
A: CO = SV * HR
SV is the volume of the blood pumped out in a single heartbeat
HR is the heart rate
SV = EDV - ESV
EDV is the volume of left ventricle before contraction
ESV is after contraction.

Q: calculating distance from ultrasound echo times
A: distance traveled =
D = ct = 2d
d is the distance traveled to probe which is half
you have to use half the time

Q: index of refraction formula
A: speed of the light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material
c = 3 x 10^8

Q: electric field
A: # number of newtons of force per coulomb charge.
N/C
F = Eq
Electric field causes the force.
field goes away from positive charges and towards negative charges
magnitude of electric field size and direction from a point
E = kQ/ r^2

Q: Ke
A: 9x10^9 Nm^2 / C^2

Q: insulators and conductors
A: electrons cant flow through an insulator
there is a thing called induction
if you bring a - charged rod close to another uncharged rod a nd the uncharged rod is attached to the ground. it will turn + charge because the electrons will flow into the earth
insulators do not have charged carriers.

Q: gravitational potential energy
A: PE = mgh
W = mgh = Fd

Q: electric potential energy
electric potential
electric field
electric force
A: F = Eq
E = 5 N/C
F at a charge of 2C = 10N
if traveled 3 m then W = 30 Nm = 30 J
W/Charge = V = J / C
electric potneital is comparing points in space
electric potential energy keeps track of the charge
PE = U = Vq
k = 9*10^9 Nm^2/ C^2
V = kq / r
electric field = kq / r^2
electric force = kqq / r^2

friction
static and kinetic friction

Q: common sugars
A: down right, up lefting
glucose is middle finger

Q: L vs D and R vs S
configuration
A: if the highest numbered chiral carbon is R then its D
if the highest numbered chiral carbon is S then its L
alpha points on opposite side of highest numbered chiral center and beta points in the same side.

Q: snell's law and refraction
A: larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium
n = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in air
critical angle is the angle where the refraction is at 90 degrees. anything more is internal refraction
since the angle would be 90 degrees
you set the
n sin theta = 1

Q: kinetic molecular theory
boyles
charles
gay lusac
avagadros
maxwell boltzman
A: boyles P and V are inversely correlated. PV = PV
charles V and T are correlated. V / T = V / T
Gay lusaac law Pressure and temp are correlated P / T = P / T
avogadros law = V and n are correlated
combined law
PV / T = PV / T
in joules per molecule

Q: mechanical wave sound waves and amplitude relationship
A: E is correlated to square of amplitude

Q: blood vessel radius on blood velocity
A: Q = Av
continuuity of flow equation. Av = Av

Q: ideal gas laws
there are 4
A: no attractive or repulsive forces
size of ideal gas is negligible
collisions are elastic
kinetic energy is correlated to temp.

Q: branching and boiling points
A: branching allows for less surface area for more forces to interact so it lowers the boiling point.

Q: lewis acids vs bronsted lowry
A: bronsted lowry is base is H+ acceptor
bronsted acid is H+ donor
lewis acid is electron acceptor
lewis base is electron donor
atoms with electrons are lewis bases
atoms in a positive oxidation state and our electron difficient are lewis acids.
coordinate covalent happens when metal ion center surrounded by ions is a complex ion.

Q: types of decay
alpha
beta
gamma
A: alpha is unstable atomic nucleus ejects two protons and two neutrons bound together as alpha partical which is a helium nucleus
beta decay involves the atomic number
Beta - is a neutron converted to proton. increases atomic number.
Beta + is proton converted to neutron. creates poistron and neutrino. also call positron emission.
electron capture is nucleus gets a elctron from orbital and forms neutron and neutrino and reduces protons by one.
gamma decay
excited state nucleus emits gamma ray and high energy photon. no partical is emitted.

Q: reducing agents
NaBH4
LiAlH4
Borane (BH3)
H2 pressure
A: NaBH4 mild agent reduces ketones and aldehydes only
LiAlH4 aldehydes ketones carboxylic acids esters. will reduce anything
Bh3 -> only carboxylic acid
H2 pressure will reduce a double bond

Q: VSEPR theory
linear
trigonal planar
tetrahedral
trigonal bipyramid
octahedral
A: linear 2 groups (180)
trigonal planar 3 groups and bent if 1 LP (120)
tetrahedral 4 groups and trigonal pyramidal if lone pair and bent if 2 (109)
trigonal bipyramid is 5
octahedral is 6
every additional lone pair decreases bond angle

Q: dipole dipole interactions
dipole dipole
hydrogen bonding
dipole induced ipole
ion dipole
A: dipole induced dipole is when a permanent dipole distorts electrons clouds in nonpolar bond.

Q: wavelength speed frequency
A: in different mediums frequency remains the same. wavelength and speed can differ.

Q: magnetic lorentz force equation
A: F = qvB
B is magnetic field

Q: right hand rules for current and force
A: thumb to force. middle to Butt. index is velocity

Q: Gas constant values
depending on atm or J
A: 0.08 L * atm / (mol * K)
8.314 J / (K * mol)

Q: IR spectra
where are single
triple
and double bonds
OH bonds
C=O is sharp
C=C
and aromatic
A: Single bond stretch 4000 - 2500
Triple - 2500-2000
Double bond - 2000-1500
C-H bond is 2800-3300

Q: Energy of photon equation
planks constant
momentum of photon
A: E = h * f
plancks constant = 6.6 * 10^-34 J*s
light only deposits energy in discrete amounts. super small energy per photon.
light is massless so can't use p = mv
can only use p = h / wavelength

Q: photoelectric effect
what is work function and relation to energy of photon
A: one photon creates a photoelectron when hitting an electron
E photon = E of freeing electron + KE of photoelectron
Work function is that energy of moving the electron
KE = Ephoton - E of moving the electron

Q: isomers
configurational isomers
conformational
anti
gauche
eclipsed
axial equatorial
configurational
optical activity
enatiomers
racemic mixtures
meso compounds
cis trans
A: conformational only differ on rotation around sigma bond
staggerd is 60 degrees apart
anti is when largest groups are on opposite sides
eclipsed. the groups are in front of eachother
axial is more stable than equatorial thats why largest groups in cyclohexane usually equatorial
configurational
D rotates towards right
L rotates towards left
enantiomer - mirror images
racemic mixtures have qual R and S so it cances
diasteromers are non mirror stereoisomers
meso compounds have internal plane of symmetry so doesnt rotate.

Q: ideal gas law how to calculate n
A: n is the number of moles
which is the weight / molar mass

Q: strong acids
A: HCL
HBR
HI
HNO3
H2SO4
HCLO4 - perchlorate
HCLO3

Q: Strong Bases
A: all are aqeous
LiOH
NaOH
KOH
Sr(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
weak base
Al(OH)3 (insoluble in water in normal conditions)

Q: glycolysis memorization
acronyms for intermediates and enzymes
A: Gross - glucose
Guys - glucose 6 phosphate
Favor - fructose 6 phosphate
Big Butts - fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate
Good - glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
Boys - 1, 3 bisphosphoglycerate
Prefer - 3 phosphoglycerate
Pretty Girls In 2 phosphoglycerate
Pink - phosphoenolpyruvate
Pajamas - pyruvate
Helen - Hexokinase
Paints - Phosphoglucoisomerase
Pictures - Phosphofructokinase-1
Along the - Aldolase
Training - Triose-Phosphate Isomerase
Grounds - G3P dehyrogenase
Praying - Phosphoglycerate Kinase
People - PhosphoGlyberate Mutase
Enjoy -  Enolase
Painting - Pyruvate Kinase

Q: enzymes
kinetics vs equilibirum
what is michaelis-menten
what is the equation
competitive
noncompetitive
uncompetitive
mixed inhibition
A: kinetics only affected by enzymes
equilibrium affected by keq, concentrations, le chat
both affected by temp tho
michaelis-menten is the change of rate of the reaction for an enzyme as amount of substrate increases
V = Vmax * [s] / (Km + [s])
Km - the amount of substrate concentration at 1/2 Vmax. Higher the Km is lower the affinity
Lineweaver plot - slope is Km/ VMAX
competitive inhibition - raises Km because less "apparent affinity". no effect on Vmax because at high substrate can compete.
non-competitive - lowers Vmax, keeps KM the same
feedback inhibition is a type of noncompetitive inhibition where the product binds allosterically to the enzyme
uncompetitive inhibitior - reduced vmax and km
binds only to the enzyme substrate complex. cannot release product while the inhibitor is bound so it has high affinity. decreases free enzyme
mixed inhibitor - can bind to ES complex and just E. can increase KM or decrease KM based on if it leans towards noncomp or comp. decreases vmax though.

Q: alpha helix h bonding
beta sheet h bonding
A: alpha helix bonds with N-H to CO from 4 away
beta sheet binds to the antiparallel h bonding. parallel is diaganol. antiparallel more stable.

Q: aufbaus
pauli exclusion
hunds rule
A: aufbaus - fill lowest energy first then high
pauli - no two electrons can have same 4 quantum numbers
hunds - half filled orbitals are first

Q: quantum numbers
4 parts
n, l, m, s
A: s = 0
p = 1
d = 2
f = 3

Q: paramagnetic vs diamagnetic
A: paramagnetic is lone pair in orbital and is attracted to magnetic field
diamagnetic dont have lone pairs and is repelled

Q: substituent effects on benzene for pkA
A: EWG increase the acidity because the O- is stabalized
EDG decrease the acidity
EWG decreases basicity
EDG increases basicity bc more electrons to grab the proton

Q: capacitors
equation
equatin for capacitance
energy of capacitor formula
what stays the same
in a series
in a parallel
what is a dialectric
A: Q = VC
C = Q / V
C = A / d
incresasing area or lowering distance increases capacitance
coulomb per volt is a Farad
Cannot change the capacitance ever
the charge increases also the voltage will increase
only way to change capacitance is changing the physical characteristics itself.
E = 1/2 QV
V is voltage across capacitor not battery
In series capacitors is 1 / C + 1/C, all get same charge in series
in parallel the voltage is the same as the battery. the charge is proprtional to capacitance
diaelectrics increase capacitance by lowering the voltage. the shift in electrons leaning towards postive side and protons going to negative side, effectively reduces teh potential
more diaelectric the more itll increase the capacitance. has to be greater than 1 to increase.
C = k C

Q: validity and reliabilities
internal
external
population
ecological
test
criterion
concurrent
predictive
construct
convergent
discriminint
content
face
test-retest
inter-rater
A: VALIDITY = ACCURACY
Internal Validity: Is the Cause-Effect okay?
External Validity: Can it be generalizable?
Population Validity: Can it be extrapolated to the general public?
Ecological Validity: Is the environment of the test similar to the environment of the real thing?
Test Validity: How good is the test?
Criterion Validity: IS the test itself valid?
Concurrent Validity: Does it hold up against a benchmark test?
Predictive Validity: Does it predict well?
Construct Validity: Does it do what it is supposed to do?
Convergent Validity: Things that are supposed to be related are related
Discriminant Validity: Things that aren’t related are not related
Content Validity: Does it measure what it is supposed to measure?
Face Validity: Would a dumb dumb say that the test is valid?
RELIABILITY = CONSISTENCY
Test-retest reliability: Test it again and it’s the same
Inter-rater reliability: Two different people measure the same thang

Q: electron charge and how it relates to coulomb
A: e = -1.6 x 10^-19
Q = ne
Q is charge, e is constant, n is number of electrons

Q: energy stored in a capacitor formula
A: U = 1/2 CV^2

Q: Power and heat relation to voltage and current
A: P = IV

Q: bernoulli equation
A: Just pressure and pgh for potential energy
if equal heights can ignore pgh
1/2pv^2 is kinetic energy

Q: intensity relation to power
A: intensity is Power / A
Power = Energy / t

Q: coefficient of expansion
A: L = aLT
change in length is the product of th ecoefficient, original lenght, and temp

Q: IR Spectra
two factors
weight and polar
where are hydrogen bonds
then double bonds
A: if more polar more vibrations and higher wave number
if more weight less vibration lower wave number
hydrogen between 3500-2800
triple 2200-2400
double 1600-1800

Q: fundamental frequency of standing and closed waves
A: the way a standing wave looks is you have
for open
wavelength / 2 = L
so wavelength = 2L
for closed you have wavelength / 2 = L
so wavelength = 4L
so fundamental frequency of open
is f = v / 2L
for closed f = v / 4L
therefore open is 2f of the closed.

Q: electromagnetic spectrum
left to right  (increasing frequency and energy)
A: radio -> microwave -> infrared -> visible -> ultraviolet -> xray -> gamma

Q: Power work and force relation
A: Power = E / t = W / t = Fd / t = Fv

Q: torque and rotational equilibrium
A: when there is rotational equilibrium set all torques equal

Q: mechanical advantage
A: ratio of output force and input force
Fi di = Fo do
so Fo / Fi = di / do

Q: which electrons are removed from an atom
A: the highest shell electrons are removed. which are also highest energy

Q: coordination number
A: when a complex ion is forced with metal ion bonded to ligands through a coordinate covalent bond, the nmber of coordinate bonds to the central atom is the coordination number

Q: stereochemical finding RS based on fischer or haworth projections
A: In fischer the arms come out and hug you
in cyclic the axial vs equatorial show above or behind. down is behind

Q: static vs kinetic friction
A: static friction is always greater than kinetic friction.

Q: friction what to remember about directoin
A: ALWAYS In OPPOSITE Direction

Q: nomenclature for double and triple bonds
A: all pi bonds have same priority so ene and yne have same priority

Q: various SN2 reactions to replace -OH
A: require a good leaving group and hydroxyl is not good
mesylate and tosylate are good leaving groups and retain the stereochemistry.
SN2 reactiosn invert the sterochemistry
oxidation with PCC then adition would cause the OH and CN product
PBR would cause double inversion

Q: cDNA
how created
what is needed
A: cdNA uses mRNA as a transcript and uses reverse transciptase
cDNA lacks introns and only has exons.
DNA polymerase adds complimentary strand to make to make it double stranded then its amplified with PCR and then restriction enzymes are added to make sticky ends.
then its ligated into a vector to be added into a cell

Q: restriction enzymes
what are they
why are they used
A: found in prokaryotes to protect the cell and cut them up.
but biochemists use it to do things to DNA to analyze and clone it.
they cut at palindromic sequences
5' reads same as 3'

Q: transverse vs longitudinal waves
A: transverse up and down
longitudinal left and right

Q: Mass spectroscopy formula to caluclate mass to charge ratio
A: m/z = M of uncharged molecule + M of H added / new charge
example

Q: extractions and separations
how to separate carboxylic acid and hydroxyl
what about amine
A: carboxylic acid and phenyl add a weak base to deprotonate the oxygen so it goes into aqeous layer
for phenyl then add a strong base to deprotonate the hydroxyl.
for amines you can add an acid so that it's protonated. you can use a strong acid for this

Q: UV light excitation
LUMO
A: UV light is radiation that is caused with 200 to 400 nm energy. causes transition from ground state to higher energy level. in the ground state pi electrons from double bonds are in the pi bonding molecular orbital and non bonding electrons are in the n nonbonding molecular orbital. the electrons can be excited to the pi* antibonding orbital

Q: litmus paper
colors
A: blue turns red in acid
red turns blue in base
blue is BASE

Q: enthalpy
heat released or consumed
A: a negative H corresponds to exothermic reaction where heat is released and temperature increases

Q: hess law
how to calculate
what to do with reactants
A: sum of enthalpies of formation for each component
when reactants are consumed you have to change the sign to opposite

Q: equilibrium constant and gibbs energy
ln relation with Keq
if Keq greater than 1
if equal to 1
if 0 to 1
A: if Keq greater than 1 its positive so its spontatneous
if = 1 then its at equilibrium
if 0 - 1 then its nonspontaneous

phase changes and entropy
what is sublimation
what is deposition

Q: in a closed pipe what are the harmonics for n
A: its only every odd number. and each n is a node

Q: enzymes
A: no enzyme will affect the products produced or the thermodynamics of the reaction. it only increases the rate by decreasing activation energy

Q: heterogenous vs homogenous catalysts
A: homo is in the same phase as the reactants.
heterogenous involve adsoprtion of reactants onto the surface of the catalyst and provide higher reaction rates when increasing surface area

Q: solubility constnat
Q and K
A: ksp = [product][product]
in the case of solubility is solids -> ions
if Q > ksp it drives reaction to other side
if the Q is > than ksp than it means there are more reactants
Q less means that there more products

Q: electric fields
what direction
what direction is field in this example
A: test charge is always positive
electric field radiates outward from a positive charge and to a negative charge
if you put a negative charge in a electric field moving right. the force it feels is in opposite direction of the field.
opposite is true for positive charge

Q: current and flow of electrical charge
A: electrons flow in opposite direction of the current. bc it's all relative to positive charges

Q: formula for resistance
A: R = pL / A
resistivity
low means good conductor like metals

doppler shift

Q: carboxylic acids stretch in IR
A: 3300-2400 very braod OH
1710 sharp C=)

Q: potential energy of a spring
A: 1/2kx^2

Q: reactivity down the group
A: since the furthest electron is further. the last electron is easier to give up which increases reactivity.

Q: vant hoff factor i
A: coefficient related to the number of moles of osmotically active ions or molecules that a solute molecule will form when dissolved
Mi = osmolarity
M is molar solute concentration

heat and equilibrium constant

in balloon bouyancy problems.
what is the bouyant force and what do you subtract with

Q: amino acid synthesis reactions
what are the starting materials for each
and what are the steps
gabriel synthesis
strecker synthesis (more elegant)
A: gabriel
potassium phthalide + diethyl bromomalonate create N-phthalmidomalonic ester
This is then alkylated to attach the R group. SN2 reaction
Then it is hydrolized to removes the esthers
Then it is heated up to decarboxylate the extra carboxyl group.
strecker synthesis
1) NH3
2) KCN
3) aldehyde or ketone
creates imine and then KCN

Q: balancing out redox reactions
A: half reactions and then multiply to make electrons equal to both sides

Q: pauli exclusion principles
A: each orbital within a subshell can hold a maximum of two electrons and must have opposite spins.

Q: terpene classification and structure
A: isoprene is C5H8

Q: kinematic equations
A: vf = vo + at
vf^2 = vo^2 + 2ad
d = vot + 1/2at^2

Q: terminal voltage and electromotive force
A: magnitude of electromotive force is theoretical upper limit of terminal voltage.
V = emf - Vloss
the V loss is from internal resitatnce.
emf is intrinsically related ot composition of battery. observed terminal voltage decreases when increasing battery resistance.

Q: what carbon is the anomeric carbon for aldoses vs ketoses
A: aldoses is C1
Ketoses is C2

Q: diastereomers vs epimers vs anomers
A: diastereomers have differing configurations at one or more positions
epimers are diastereomers with differences at only one position
anomers are a special epimer that differs only at anomeric carbon

Q: thermodynamic vs kinetic enolates
what base and what temparature
A: thermodynamic forms at more substituted. use NAH at room temp
kinetic forms quicker with the large bulky base but less substituted. LDA + -78

Q: polarization of light
linear polarization
circular polarization
A: polarized light is when light is only oscillating in one direction.
circular polarization is when if you have a polarized light but have another light with its own polarization. when you have a 90 degree shift between a vertical and horizontal wave you get an offset

Q: grignard reagent
what is it
and what does the reaction look like
A: it is the nucleophilic addition of an alkyl group to the carbonyl by an organometallic reagent followed by acidic workup

Q: properties of sound
how does speed change in solids vs gas
A: speed of sound is slowest in gasses and fastest in solids
it needs a medium to propagate
it is a pressure wave and is longitudinal

Q: diffraction formula
A: m * lambda = d sin theta

Q: right hand rule
A: thumb is F because its free
middle in the butt (deeper)
pointer in vag

Q: work done by lorentz force
A: always 0 because FD cos theta
theta is 90
cosin 90 is 0

Q: the specific heat is what
A: its the amount of heat required to increase 1g of a substance by 1 C

Q: open vs closed vs isolated systems
A: open - mass or matter can flow into and out of. energy and light can move in and out too
closed system - matter cannot flow out. heat energy can move into and out of
isolated sytem - matter cannot flow out and heat energy cannot flow out

Q: PCC and oxidizing agents
A: PCC doesnt fully oxidize because it doesnt form the geminal diol that water uses to add the extra oxigen

Q: polar protic vs aprotic
A: polar protic can dissociate and hydrogen bond. this is better for sn1 because it stabalizes carbocatiopn
polar aprotic is no hydrogens and still polar and cannot hydrogen bond. this allows you to surround the cations and make th enucleophile stronger

Q: electrolytic and galvanic cells
reduction potentials vs oxidation potentials vs E cell
galvanic cells spon or nonspon
electrolytic cells spon or nonspon
A: higher reduction potential is more positive and will get reduced
galvanic/voltaic is spontaneous. produces electric energy
electrolytic is like charging a phone it needs energy to charge up. non spontaneous. the flow of the electrons is reversed.
red cat and anox doesnt change. the charge is oppsoite for electrolytic cell

Q: phenol quinone hydroquinone ubiquinone
A: phenol is a phenyl thats oxidized.
phenol oxidized creates a quinone
quinone can be reduced with 2 electrons and 2 hydrogens to hydroquinone

wheatstone bridge circuit

Q: numbering purines and pyramadines
A: in pyramadines start at the Nitrogen embedded in the ring so that the two nitrogens have lowest numbers and all other groups have lowest numbers
in purines start at the larger ring and then do same with smaller ring.

Q: his tag nickel affiniity chromatography
A: type of affinity chromatography
you use his tag which strongly binds to the nickel with the imidazole group. then elute with jsut the imadzole group.

common  ionns
acetate
carbonate
bicarbonate