Title: bio

Q: Female menstrual cycle
list the three phases
what happens in each phase (dynamic between LH, FSH, Estrogen, Progesterone)
what's the role of each of them as well
A: three phases are:
1. follicular (days 1-13)
2. ovulation (day 14)
3. luteal (day 15-28)
In the follicular phase, LH, and FSH go up and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland (secretes ACTH, prolactin, and growth hormone as well). LH surges and causes a follicular to mature. estrogen also increases
At ovulation, LH surges dramatically and a oocyte is released
In the Luteal phase, Estrogen and Progesterone remain high, progesterone thickens the endometrium which makes it receptive to implantation and this surpresses FSH and LH. In the case of fertilzation progesterone and estrogen remain high

Q: Base Pairing
Tell me chargaffs rules
which are the pyrimidines and which are purines
how do they bond
A: pyrimidines are cytidine and thymidine
purines are adenosine and guanosine
adenosine and thymine bond with 2 hydrogen bonds
cytidine and guanosine bond with 3 hydrogen bonds

Q: Neuron Action potential
trigger zone
various phases
refractory vs relative refractory
dynamic between NA+ and K+
Leak channels vs Voltage Gated Channels
A: trigger zone has a bunch of voltage gated ion channels that signficantly depolarize axon that trigger the chain reaction to open up more voltage gated ion channels
sodium KA pumps used to mantain the gradient with ATP. 3 NA+ out, 2 in. keeps the inside negative.
-55 is the threshold.
As soon as they are triggered they have a plateue and it starts to repolarize. When it is very depolarized K+ voltage gated ion channels + just diffusion from leak channels makes it so it overshoots to the polar side.
On the opposite end there are Cl- inhibitory neuron potentials that hyperpolarize.
In this time it's in the refractory phase and can't be retriggered. But as it starts returning to normal there is a relative refractory phase where more signals are necessary to lead to the threshold.

Q: Muscles
Anatomy of a muscle cell
name sarcomere bands and what is in each band
process of myosin binding to actin
process of sarcolemma getting trigger to cause the power stroke
A: There is a sarcolemma which is bonded by the axon of a motor neuron which will trigger the action potential. Which propogate the action potential to t tubules which go into the cell and triggers the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium
In the myofibril, there are sarcomeres which are these repeating structures. The A band is the part that contains the myosin
The I band is the part that doesn't contain the myosin
The Z bands are the ends
The process of myosin binding to actin is that there is an ATP that gets binded to the myosin to cock it back by releasing ADP and phosphate and energy. It then attaches to the actin and once there is a trigger from Ca+, the phosphate is released and there is a power stroke. This then releases the ADP. the cycle starts all over.
The sarcolemma gets trigger from a motor neuron that will cause the chain of action potentials down to T tubule to release a bunch of Ca+ when it's activated from sarcoplasmic reticulum. In a rest state, the sarcoplasmic reticulum is constantly taking in Ca+. The Ca+ binds to the troponin which is binded to the tropomyosin and moves the tropomyosin out of the way which allows for the myosin to shuffle down.

Q: Three type of muscles
Think about "movement"
fast and slow twitch muscles
A: Skeletal muscle
attached to tendon/bone or aponeurosis which is a flat tendon
voluntary
super fast
straight and many nuclei on the periphery
straiations
Cardiac muscle
can only find in heart
involuntary or automatic
medium slow
branched cells, sometimes 1 or 2 nuclei
straiations
Smooth muscles
found in hollow organs and blood vessels (stomach) walls
involuntary or automatic
slow
looks like an eye. ends are tapered. 1 nuclei in middle of cell.
slow twitch contract slower than fast twitch and have more mitochondria capillaries and myoglobin. they have more fatigue resistance.

Q: Separations and Purifications
gel electrophoresis
A: Gel electrophoresis
There is a gel one side is the cathode where reduction occurs and one side is the anode where oxidation takes place so it's positively charged.
two types of gels:
agorose - has big holes to separate big pieces of DNA >50bp
SDS-Page - good at separating small DNA or proteins. denatures proteins so charge of protein isn't important. only separates on size. S for Small. mobilitiy is inverse log proportional to molecular weight . gives uniform negative charge
nucleic acid PAGE to break H bonds.
reducing conditions are there to break disulfied bonds in protein PAGE

Q: Cellular Respiration
1. Glycolysis
How many net ATP's
How many ATP's used
How many NADH and how
What is created overall
What are the steps
A: Net 2 ATP's. 2 Used. 2 NADH made by Reduction of NAD+. 2 Pyruvate also created
Step 1. Glucose to glucose 6-phosphaate. Investment phase. where phosphate is added by converting ATP to ADP with hexokinase with Mg+ as a aid.
Step 2. There is a equilibrium with glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate aided by phosphoglucose isomerase.
Step 3. Forward reaction with ATP. fructose 6-phosphate to make fructose 1,6 biphosphate using phosphofructokinase and another ATP and Mg+.
Step 4. fructose biphosphate aldolase splits the glucose into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. triphosphate isomerase keeps them in the other phase in equilibrium.
Step 4. glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase takes the hydrogen off of g3p and puts it on NAD+ to create a NADH using Mg++. Get reduction. Also adds a phosphate group. Glycerate 1, 3 biphosphate.
Step 5. Payoff phase. Phosphoglycerate kinase. Uses ADP to turn to ATP and pops off a phosphate group.
Step 6. Moves using phosphoglycerate mutase which just moves the phosphate group
Step 7. Enolase to remove a hydrogange
Step 8. Pyruvate kinase makes another ATP into Pyruvate or pyruvic acid.

Q: Cellular Respiration
2. Citric Acid Cycle / Krebs
Where does it happen
What happens to pyruvate to get it ready
What steps do oxidation occurs to create electron carriers.
A: Occurs in inner membrane of mitochondria in the matrix
The pyruvate through pyruvate oxidation creates acetyl Coa to get it ready for krebs. And also creates a NADH. One Carbon dioxide gets cleaved on. This 2 carbon molecule created merges with oxaloacetic acid which is 4 carbon to create citric acid which is a six carbon molecule.
Each cycle of citric acid cycle returns to oxaloacetic acid (4 carbon) and produces 3 CO2 from pyruvate transition to what happens in the cycle. Each turn creates 3 NADH, one FADH2, one ATP, and 2 CO2. This happens 2 per each glucose.
Step 1. acetyl coa joins oxaloacetate releasing the CoA and creating citrate
Step 2. citrate converted to isocitrate. 2 step process which is removing a h2o and then readding it
Step 3. isocitrate is oxidized and releases a CO2, leaving behind a 5 carbon a-ketoglutarate. The oxidization converts a NAD+ to NADH with isocitrate dehydrogenase, this enzyme mantains speed
Step 4. Similar to Step 3. a-ketoglutarate is oxidized creating another NADH and releasing CO2. which leaves a unstable 4 carbon chain and picks up CoA. Makes succynil CoA throuhg a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
Step 5. CoA from succinyl coA is removed and replaced by phosphate group. This then is transferred to ADP to make GTP or ATP using succinyl CoA synthetase.
Step 6. succinate oxidized to form fumarate. Fad is reduced to FADH2. FAD has more affinity for electrons and succinate is not a good donor. that's why it's used.
Step 7. water is added to fumarate to make malate.
Step 8. Oxidization of Malate creates another NADH to starting position

Q: oxidative phosphorilation and ETC
A: third part of cellular respiration
oxidation of NADH to NAD+ transition
NADH -> NAD+ + H + 2e-
2e- + 2H+ + 1/2 O2 -> H20
^oxygen is reduced.
citric acid cycle in the matrix of inner membrane of mito.
protons get pumped out from matrix to intermembrane space
this creates a electrochemical gradient. which is the "energy"
34 ATP's are created for one molecule of glucose
NADH -> 3 ATP
FADH2 -> 2 ATP. lower energy level
ubiquinone structure
STEP BY STEP
complex 1 - bound to the inner membrane of the mitochondria. L shape. accepts high energy electrons from NADH. has extension into matrix where NADH is oxidized. FAD has 3 member ring. it's a proton pump. 4H+ ions are pumped. 2H+ end up on Q CoQ to QH2. Ubiquinone to Ubiquinol.
complex 2 (succinate reductase) - not a pump. gets the protons from FADH2. produces less ATP because not a pump. complex 2 is involved in krebs cycle. succinate to fumarate through succinate dehydrogenase which is contained in complex 2. the 2 H+ gets bound to ubiquinol.
complex 3 - transfers electrons from QH2 to complex 3. Q cycle is process by which QH2 to cytochrome C. soluble in water. found in intramembrane space. 2 H+ pumped from QH2. The 2 electrons remaining take two separate pathways. Cytochrome C can only bound one electron. The other pathway turns ubiquinone into a radical and picks up 2 hydrogen from matrix to create another QH2. Which this pumps out another 2H+. so 4H+ pumped total.
complex 4 - cytochrome c to oxygen. 2 cytochrome c come through and they each give one electron. One electron stops at Heme a3 and one stops at CuB and it makes a peroxide bridge with oxygen. 2 protons are picked up from matrix that break the bridge. 2 more hydrogens come and take out the water. 2 protons are pumped out. 2 combine with oxygen
complex 5 is atp synthase. has 2 regions. f1 is in the matrix. alpha unit doesn't release ATP. only Beta unit does.  3.33-4.67 H+ per ATP generated
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wdiTJP6ACGM&ab_channel=MedSchoolCoachMCATPrep

Q: lactic acid fermentation
alcohol fermentation
what are you trying to create
A: main idea is to recycle pyruvate and nadh. so that you can run glycolysis again.
pyruvic acid to lactic acid.
pyruvate gets rid of carboxylate. with pyruvate decarboxylate. this creates a acetaldehye and it's reduced and oxidizes a NAD+ to create ethanol. This creates more NAD+.

Q: ph vs pka vs pkb vs poh
A: P(x) is inversely related to the underlying value.
if PH increased from 5 to 8. H+ decreased by 1000

Q: Blotting
SNOW
DROP
A: southern = DNA
northern = RNA
western = Protein
smaller is lower.
transcription by northern blot
translation by western blot
western blotting proteins separated by gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane with flouroscent antibodies. this allows protein bands to be visualized.

Q: physiological feedback
positive vs negative
A: process for one product to increase another
process for one product to decrease another.
estrogen -> GNRH -> LH -> even more estrogen that's a positive loop
progesterone turns off the loop and becomes negative loop.

Q: somatic vs autonomic nervous system
A: motor neurons are fast myelinated and thick super insulated. starts at the primary motor cortex in the front. left side crosses to the right side. UMN to LMN.
autonomic has
sympathetic - (norepinephrine or noradrenaline)
parasympathetic  - acetylcholine
somatic - voluntary
acetylcholine

Q: heart blood flow
A: 1. deoxygenated blood comes from superior and inferior vena cavae to the right atrium
2. right atrium contracts and pumps blood through tricuspit to right ventricle
3. right ventricle sends blood through pulmonary valv into the pulmonary arteries
4. arteries carry blood from heart to capillary beds of lung alveoli for gas exchange
5. blood unloads co2 and loads o2 and returns to left atrium oxygenated
6. left atrium contracts through bicuspid (mitral) valv to left ventricle
7. left ventricle contracts to aortic valve and rest of body through aorta
right lungs have 3 lobes. left has 2

Q: all the types of enzymes
transferase
ligase
oxidoreductase
isomerase
hydrolase
lyase
A: enzymes speed up reaction by lowering their activation energies
1. transferase - moves a functional group
2. ligase - joins to groups.
3. oxidoreductase - transferring electrons from a to b. can usually catalyze forward or backward. dehydrogenase h with 2 electrons
4. isomerase - just creates isomers
5. hydrolase - use water to cleave a molecule to create 2 groups
6. lyase - a to b + c without water. cleavage without water or oxidation. usually gnerates double bond or ring.

Q: peripheral somatosensation
types of receptors
tracts
A: position, vibration, touch -> mechanorecpetors. large diameter axons for faster propagation.
pain -> nociceptor, bare endings.
temperature -> thermoreceptors. thin maybe no myelin sheaths.
afferent neurons carry message back pns.
afferent neurons carry sensory information
efferent neurons carry motor information.

muscle stretch reflex
types of nuerons

Q: grey and white matter
A: grey matter contain neuron somas in the CNS
white matter contain myelinated axons
most of grey matter is inside in the spinal cord where white matter surrounds it.
brain has grey matter mostly on the outside. which is the cortex. cerebral cortex. white matter is in the inside.
grey matter deep in the brain called nuclei.
tracts are collection of axons carrying neurons doing a common task.
axons are comoposed of white matter.

Q: upper motor neurons
corticospinal tract
corticobulbar tract
signs
A: corticospinal tract - the upper motor neurons go to the other side to connect to lower motor neurons in the spine
corticobulbar tract - for upper motor neurons connecting to lower motor neurons in the brain or brain stem. they go to both sides.
signs -
hyperreflexia -> increase in muscle stress reflex
clonus - rhythmic contraction of antagonist muscles. pull up on foot of patient and it just goes up and down over and over.
hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles.
extensor plantar response (babinski) - normally if scrape bottom of foot you flex, but in this case you extend.

Q: cerebellum
where is it
fucntions
A: behind the brainstem and under cerebrum
coordinates movement. smooths them out.
3 things
1. motor plan - how to contract and how strong to contract.
2. Position sense information - if the movement is right
3. feedback - corrects the motor plan.

Q: brainstem
parts
A: connects all the parts of the nervous system.
cranial nerves.
reticular formation of the brainstem is random scatter of somas throughout brainstem. like circulation respiration and digestion. sends axons to cerebrum for higher level funcitons as well like cognition.
long tracts. axons from cerebrum to spinal cord. that pass through brain stem. motor
there are somatosensory ones too. that cross over.
midbrain
pons - sleep wake cycle and breathing
medulla - heart circulation breathing

Q: subcortical cerebrum
corpus collosum
basal ganglia
thalamus
hypothalamus
A: corpus allows you to connect left and right side
basal ganglia - motor functions. they help motor areas of cerebral cortex. also help cognitino and emotion
thalamus - diencephalon. nuclei. sensory function. also higher functions.
hypothalamus - right below the thalamus. connected to pituitary glands. endocrine system.

Q: cerebral cortex
different lobes
A: grey area portion outer area.
gyrae are the ridges
small grooves are sulci
the large grooves are fissures.
divided into lobes
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
visual information from one side is processed by other side. in occipital
^same way for somatosensory. for parietal.
other senses get activated on both sides.
motor is also cross body from the frontal lobe.
primary cortex - basic motor or sensory fucntion
association - associating different info to do complex things.

Q: neurotransmitters
glutamate
gaba
glycine
acetylcholine
histamine
norepi
searatonin
dopamine
A: Glutamate - excitatory. reticular activating system
Gaba - inhibitory (brain)
Glycine - inhibitory (spinal cord)
acetylcholine - basalis nucleius and spetal
histamine - hypothalamus
norepi - pons. locus ceuruleus
seratonin - raphe nuclei
dopamine - mid brain. VTA. substantia nigra. projects dopamine to striatum for parkinsons disease. hypothalamus send dopamine to pituitary gland.

Q: ways to study the brain
old ways
brain structure
brain function
A: lesion studies were old way where you cut out portion of the brain
structure
CAT scan - uses xrays to make a image of the brain. for tumor swelling. cannot tell us about active though
MRI - uses radio waves. signal is emited when magnetic field with radio waves flip the orientation. more detailed
function
EEG - electrical activity of brain. noninvasive. we get lines from them. REM sleep
MEG - magnetic field from current of brain
fMRI - structural + see active. neurons that are working hard require more oxygen.
PET scans - radioactive glucose. active cells use more glucose.

Q: types of neural cell types
CNS
astrocytes
microglia
ependymal cells
oligodendrocytes
PNS
schwann cells
sattelite cells
A: astrocytes - star cells. glial cells of CNS. they have a soma and quite a few branches and processes. have end feet. scaffold of the nervous system. have all the structure. glial scar - if theres some injury in brain or in spinal cord and they multiply and migrate to the injury. they wall off the injury. astrogliasis. homeostasis - mantain interstitial fluid, mantain ions. they contribute to blood brain barrier as well. end feet are plastered onto the blood vessels. clear out synapses between neurons. blood brain barrier.
microglia - from monocytes of bone marrow and from mesoderm. active microglia are blob shape. they are looking for injury or infection. they look like macrophages. microglia will eat like phagocytosis. microglia then breaks it up and presents antigens. play a huge role in inflammation.
ependymal cells - epyndyma are glial cells that are a simple cuboidal epithelium for the cerebral spinal fluid. are a barrier between csf and interstial fluid. its leaky. secretes CSF.
oligodendrycytes - each oligo creates portion of myelin sheath around axons. each process produces one segment of myelin. in CNS
schwann - glial cells of PNS. there are non myelinating schwann cells. if there is a larger axon they myelinate. only produces for one segment of one axon.
sattelite cells - PNS. provide structure and support to neuron cell bodies. similar to astrocytes.

Q: the neuron
axon soma dendrite flow
A: dendrites pick up the signal. soma processes it in the nucleus. gets the action potentials at the axon hillock. travels down the axon and then it goes to axon terminals. goes to synapses to dendrites of next neuron.

Q: immune system overview
innate
adaptive
b cells
t cells types
A: there is innate and adaptive immunity
innate is just your natural defense like skin + macrophages and killer cells
adaptive are your b and t cells
b cells bind to antigens and then get activated and show a MHC 2 complex. they need a helper t cell to truly be activated and produce effector b cells ("plasma cells") and memory b cells that allow your body to react better next time around.
t cells are helper and cytoxoic. cytoxic are CD8 and helper are CD4. cytoxic t cells bind the MHC 1 complex that all nucleated cells have to trigger immune response when something bad is going on insdie.

Q: miRNA vs siRNA vs snRNA
A: both function in gene silencing
22bp
miRNA only silences RNA by imperfect base pairing. prevents translation by inhibition
siRNA silences RNA and DNA. it degrades RNA and brings in methylation for DNA.
snRNA associates with specific proteins to form small nuclear ribonucleorpoteins the building block of splicosomes.

Q: PCR what is it
the steps
what is needed
A: used to replicate dna
denaturation at high heat to separate the strands. 75C
then cool it down so primer can attach 55C
then primer extends at 72C and keeps going for certain amount of time. This uses Taq polymerase because its heat resistant. goes from 5' to 3'
its a chain reaction bc this keeps repeating
what is needed for it
a source DNA template that includes target region and flanking sequences where primers bind
primer pairs designed from oligonucleotide sequence of flanking region
thermostable DNA polymerase - not denatured at high temps and with dNTP's
a buffer solution with positively charged ions. which bind to phosphates and dNTPs neutralizing the charge.

Q: thermodynamics and kinetics relationship
A: if you need ATP or GTP help you are going to the thermodynamically unstable state. nonspontaenous reaction
a spontaneous reaction is negative delta g and no input needed.
bonds that break in slow reactions with high activation energy are kinetically stable.

Q: nucleotide structures
A: adenosine  - simple just amino on top
guanine oxygen and side nh2
cytosine oxygen on side nh2 on top
thymine oxygen side and top but with methyl
uracil oxygen side and top.

Q: dna replication
rna primer
dna ligasae
dna polymerase
dna primase
topoisomerase
okazaki fragments.
A: helicase opens the dna
topoisomerase unwinds it
5' to 3' is where polymerase can work.
but in the lagging strand there is a dna primase where there is a rna primer. which adds some nucleotide
then the polymerase starts at the fragments.
ligase glues it all together

Q: cell life cycle
interphase (G1, S, G2)
mitosis
A: interphase is where a cell spends most of its life.
when it wants to divide it goes into mitosis. division of nucleus. replication
INTERPHASE
inside the cytosol there is nuclear membrane. the chromosomes are not tightly wound and are in chromatin form.
there is also a centrosome
g1 phase is when the cell is just growing in size
sister chromatids are still one chromasome which is just a copy of one chromosome. centromere is where they intersect
S phase
is where the chromosomes are replicated and same with the centrosome
G2 phase is one more growth phase where cell gets bigger
MITOSIS
prophase
nucleolus (where ribosomes are made) disppear
dna starts to wind tightly again, nuclear membrane starts to disappear, and centrosomes migrate to opposite sides.
metaphase
chromosomes line up in the middle
there are 2 centrioles per centrosome
microtubules extend from centrosomes
nuclear envelope gone
spindle checkpoint to make sure the kinetochores are attached properly
anaphase
each centrosome pulls one sister chromatid to its side. so now theres 4 chromosomes in the cell. kinetochore is where the microtubules yank the sister chromatid
motor proteins drive this.
cell membrane starts pinch in
telophase
each side has the dna unwinding, centrosome on each side, and nuclear membranes start coming back. what was undone in prophase.
cytokinesis
is when the cell actually splits.
filaments called actin pinch the crease called cleavage furrow.

Q: fertilization terminology
gametes
zygote
haploid
diploid
A: when sperm meets the ovum
gametes (sperm and the ovum egg cell), have half the number of chromosomes.
zygote is a fertilized egg. that has the 23 chromosomes from father and 23 from mother. 46 chromosomes in fertilized egg. 23 pair of homologus chromosomes.
haploid is when you have half the number so 23 for humans in gametes
diploid is when you have the full set for humans. haploid is n diploid is 2n

Q: meiosis
stages
interphase
prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telophase 1
cytokinesis
prophase 2
metaphase 2
anaphase 2
telophase 2
A: solely for the production of gametes. goal is to make half as many chromosomes as starting cell.
one starting cell produces four gametes
in interphase
cell grows, copy chromosomes, more growth
prophase 1
chromosomes condense but also comes together with its homologue partner and crosses over at a specific allele. synaptonemal complex helps the homologus pairs stay together. chiasmata is where the homologues are linked together. multiple crossovers are possible
metaphase 1
homologous pairs lineup at the center. the orientation and chromosomes can be at same pole or different poles.
anaphase 1
homologues are pulled apart and move to opposite ends. sister chromatids still attached.
telophase 1
nuclear membrane reforms and cytokinesis makes 2 haploid cells.
meiosis 2 begins and it is the mitotis for haploid cells. sister chromatids separaqte and make haploid cells with non duplicated chromosomes.
prophase 2
chromosomes condense and nuclear envelope breaks down. centrosome move opposite sides
sister chromatids are captured by microtubules
metaphase 2
chromosomes line up
anaphase 2
sister chromatids line up
telaphase 2
forms four haploid cells in which each chromosome is just one chromatid. which is one sperm or egg.
random orientation in metaphase 1 and crossing over creates variation

Q: senescense from mutations
missense
nonsense
silent
insertion
deletion
duplication
frameshift
repeat expansion
A: aging process that occurs when cell cycle progression no longer occurs
missense - single base pair change gives rise to a new amino acid
nonsense - single base pair change results in stop codon
silent - single base pair change doesn't change anything
insertion - addition of a base pair
deltion - removal of a base pair
duplication - incorporation of one or more copies of dna sequence
frameshift - addition of basepairs not multiple of 3.
repeat expansion - same portion repeated.
AUG is start codon
UAG
UGA
UAA are stops

Q: energy storage
fats
proteins
glycogen
why are fats used.
A: glycogen stored in liver
protieins in muscles
fats in adipose tissue. fats contribute significantly more energy than anything else.
fats look like this
glyceride + acyl group
saturated is single bond
unsaturated in double bond
why are fats used
fats are energy rich in c-h bonds. inert and not reactive. no other large and functional role like proteins. very hydrophobic. not weighed down by water.

Q: fatty acid synthesis
where does it happen
what are the starting parts
what does it make
A: TAG or FFA need to reach capillary beds to get to muscle heart tissue to be oxidized for energy
3 types:
1. direct from diet -> TAG -> chylomicrons -> limphatic circulation to blood stream
2. adipose tissue - after meal they release the free fatty acids into the blood stream and attach to albumin with increase of glucagon and decrease of insulin
3. liver - can convert glucose to fatty acids. -> TAG -> VLDL -> sent to blood stream
glucose to fatty acids is called fatty acid synthesis
acetyl coa is the connection for fatty acid synthesis.
happens in the cytoplasm. citrate shuttle to transfer carbon chain out bc acetyl coa cannot transfer.
when actually creating acetyl coa takes a help from atp to make malonyl coa
this then uses fatty acid syntahse to make palmine acid which is 16C
acetyl coa carboxylase is upregulated with citrate and insulin
downregulated by glucagon and fatty acids.

Q: restriction enzymes where do they cut
A: palindromes

Q: fatty acid oxidation
activation
transporation
oxidation
A: extracting atp from triacylglyceride.
95% from the the fatty acid chain
5% from glycerol backbone
essentially oxidize the fatty acid to make nadh and fadh
break down each group of 2 carbons and oxidize to make acetyl coa.
the acetyl coa can go into krebs cycle too.
so with palmitic acid which is 16 carbons there are 8 pairs that make 10ATP from krebs to 80 ATP. 27 from oxidation of the fatty acid directly.
2.5 for one NADH and 1.5 for one FADH
how to transport fatty acids from cytoplasm to mitochondria for oxidization.
3 phase
1) activation
fatty acid reacts wtih coa-SH this creates acyl coa. coupled with atp hydrolysis that creates PP (pyrophosphate) and AMP. The PP splitting with hydrolysis is super negative delta G. located on outer mitochondrial matrix called acyl synthetase
2) transport
carnitine has hydroxyl group. and acts as a nucleophile to the acyl coa. and so coa leaves. carnitine acyl transferase I also on outer MM.
porins in OMM allow molecules to diffuse through. acyl carnitine diffuses into the intermembrane pore. IMM doesn't have pores but it has a protein transporter called acyl carnitine translocase. this transfers into IMM.
carnitine acyl transferase 2 displaces the carnitine and adds back the acyl coa.
3) oxidation
each step takes 2 carbons off of the acyl coa chain and creates one acetyl coa
uses one FAD to make FADH and one NAD to one NADH. and these are readily used in ETC. also input of water and coa group.
beta oxidation. is the second carbon from acyl group which actually gets the double bond in acetyl coa
RATE LIMITING is cartinitine acyl transferase. malonyl coa negatively relates.

nephron parts
bowman

Q: RAAS system renal regulation of blood flow
what triggers it
renin and angiotensinogen
effects
FAST and SLOW
A: JG cells juxtaglomerus cells are special smooth muscles
starts in the kidney and ends in the kidney
triggers
1). low blood pressure
2). sympathetic system
3.) macula densa cells in distal convulated tubule can sense sodium. when not much salt they release prostaglandin
all release of renin to raise blood pressure
liver cells release angiotensinogen and its not active. renin chops off a big block of it and makes angiotensin 1 which is active.
angiotensin 1 goes through blood vessels in the endothelial cells. there are ACE there. that chops 2 amino acids and leaves 8. these convert angiotensin 1 to 2. super active hormone.
angiotensin 2 goes 4 places
1) smooth muscle cells are going to contract and increase resistance (RAPID)
2) kidney cells hold onto more water and volume. sodium resorption. (SLOW) stroke volume increases
3) pituitary gland releases ADH (just water)
4) adrenal gland releases aldosterone in the kidney (water and sodium)

Q: gram positive vs gram negative
A: gram pos turns purple. thick peptidog
gram neg turns pink. thin peptidog. and has outerlayer with phospholips and LPS. has a bigger immune response.

Q: eukaryotes vs prokaryotes
Nucleus
Type of DNA
ATP Prod
A: eukaryotes have membrane bound nucleus and organelles
pokaryotes have a nucleoid. no nucleus
eukaryotes have a nucleolus that produces ribosomal rna
prokaryotes have that.
prokaryotes have circular dna
bacteria and archae are prokaryotes
prokaryotes do atp production in the plasma membrane
prokaryotes have operons which are a cluster of genes that can be transcribed by one promoter
repressors bind to operators to reduce transcriptors after promoter
activators bind to dna binding sight and increase transcripters before the promoter
lac operon activated when sugar lactose is present.

Q: cooperativity
A: sigmoidal curve from more attachment of substrate leads to bettter or worse affinity
more sigmoidal over hyperbolic.
can have poisitve or negative.

Q: gluconeogenesis
which 3 steps are unique
regulation
fast vs slow
A: pyruvate to glucose
almost opposite of glycolysis. there are some difference.
the bidirectional reactions have delta g at 0 its easy
3 unique reactions
this happens in mito
pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate
pyruvate to OAA to phosphoenolpyruvate
with pyruvate carboxylase using ATP then PEP carboxykinase using GTP
this happens in cyto
fructose 1,6 biphosphate to fructose 6 phosphate
fructose 1,6 phosphotase no atp
glucose 6 phosophate to glucose
glucose 6 phosphotase
regulation
hexokinase forward with high glucose low atp high amp
hexokinase reverse with low blood glucose
fructose 6 phosphase to fructose 1-6 bisphosphate
forward with adp, amp, f2,6 bisphosphae
citrate stops forward
reverse with
insulin to drive glycoholys
glucagon to drive gluconeogeneiss

Q: henderson hasselblack
A: PH = PKA + log (conjugate base / acid)

Q: halfway point in titration curve
buffering region
A: is the buffering region where PH = PKA because conjugate base to acid ratio is one to one so henderson hasselblakc will say its PH = PKA. so if more acid then ph is lower if more base ph is higher
lots of exchange with water in buffering region

Q: Pentose phosphate pathway
which enzymes from glucose on
A: lot of NADPH in the body. major role is to donate electrons
mantains anti oxidants
anabolic reactions build up reactions
there are some oxidative steps then starting ribulose 5 phosphate it non oxidative
this then goes to ribose 5 phosphate
can interconvert lots of sugars.

priority when naming compounds

Q: rate constant equation
arrhenious equation
A: influenced by activation energy and temperature

Q: equilibrium constant and free energy equation
A: if Q > K reaction shifts left if
Q < K reaction shifts right

Q: fatty acid oxidation for yeild acetyl coa
A: for even numbered carbons the amount of acetyl coa is
carbons / 2
for odd number carbons the amount is
(carbons - 3) / 2
if unsaturated (has double bonds) has to isomerize

Q: punnett square
A: incomplete dominance is when it forms a pink when mixture
A and B are dominant O is recessive.
AA and AO are both A
AB is AB
independent assortment - the genes are on different on chromosomes
linked traits when the genes are on the same chromosome
hybrids are Bb or Tt one of each

Q: gene mapping
A: centimorgan or m.u. - distance between genes in which 1% time of meiosis it will recombine.
further genes are more likely to recombine

Q: extranuclear inheritance
mitochondria
chloroplasts
A: mitocondria have mtDNA in eukaryotes can divide on their own
chlorplasts are plant cells algae cells and do photosynthesis specifically thylakoids. cpDNA
mitochondria is maternal inheritance. the egg cells give up all the mitochondria
no mendelian genetics. all comes from mother.

Q: blood cells
pluripotent hematopoetic stem cells
redblood cells erythrocytes
platelets
A: erythrocytes no mitochondria
happens in the spleen recycling
stem cells can be differentiated into any cell
two lineages
myeloid and lymphoid
monocytes are precursor to macrophage
neutrophils recruit other immune cells and release toxins to kill
basophils for parasites may be cause for allergic reactions
eosinophils kills bacteria and parasites but also causes tissue damage

penetrance and expressivity
complete
complete and variable
incomplete
incomplete and variable

Q: natural selections vs bottleneck effect
A: bottole neck effect reduces genetic diversity and changes allele frequency in a random way. can happen with uncontrollable disaster and then the less benefital mutation survives.
doesnt follow natural selection bc non harmful gene would probably survive. deleterious genes are harmful.

Q: amino acids
normally in what stereoisomer
A: commonly exist in L enantiomer

Q: phospholipids in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
A: both have them and
eukaryotic (have protozoa and fungi) as well
prokaryotes have cell wal too

Q: transcription factors
where do they stay
A: they stay in the nucleus when active
but cytoplasm to be translated

Q: voltage and reduciton potentials
A: G = -nFE
voltage is a intrinsic property.
can oxidize those that are lower.

Q: skin sensory receptors
merkel
free nerve endings
meissner corpuscles
ruffini endings
pacinian
A: markel disks are in epidermis and detect pressure and textures
free nerve endings are of all types and are in epidermis and dermis and respond to touch pain temp and chemicals
meissner are in dermis and dtect light pressure and low frequency vibrations
ruffini endings detect stretch in the dermis
pacinian detect deep pressure and high frequency vibrations in the dermis.

Q: subcutaneous portion of the skin
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis
A: melanin is produced by the epidermis and abosrbs and prevents UV light from damaging DNA. hair strands are dead keratinized cells. in the epidermal and dermal regions
sweat glands in dermis and screte sweat through ducts in epidermis.
hypodermis takes care of insulation. through the adipose tissue.

Q: layers of epidermis
5 layers
basale
spinosum
granulosum
lucidum
corneum
A: from top to bottom
COME LETS GET SOME BITCHES
basale - keratinocytes is a protein. tough stuff that helps protect the skin
bottom layer of the skin so rapid cell division. get skin color. melanocytes. amount of melanin dictate how dark you are
spinosum - desmosomes. spiny cells when they lost the water and they look spiny but attached with desmosomes. langerhans cells are part of the immune system.
granulosum - granular layer. keratinocytes are super granules. the granules are keratin-handling proteins. releases lamellar bodies that form a lipid layer at top of your skin
lucidum - lucid or clear layer. the keratinocytes are dead by the time they come to this layer. they are empty no organelles. no nucleus.
corneum - top most layer. layer of dead skin. stacked layers of the keratinocytes. randomly continuously fall off. newer cells move up. reptiles shed this layer in one piece. water proof

Q: special amino acids]
histidine
proline
glycine
cysteine
A: ph < PKa
pH > PkA
histidine pKA is 6.5 so it exists in both forms bc close to physio pH. good at active sites because it can stabalize
Proline has a 2 degree amino group. creates kinks in alpha helixes because its so rigid. alpha helix breaker
glycine doesnt have a chiral carbon. super flexible bc lot of free rotation. creates kinks bc its too flexible. alpha helix breaker
cysteine has a thiol group. they can disulfide bridge.

Q: precision
accuracy
validity
reliability
Validity is same as accuracy, Reliability same as precision
A: precision is how close together the results are
accuracy is how close they are to gold standard
a result is valid if its precise and accurate
Validity is same as accuracy, Reliability same as precision

Q: vitamins
water and fat soluble
A: water are B and C not stored in the body
fat are ADEK. hydrophobic and cant be secreted in urine.

Q: types of hormones
proteins
where are they made
what kind of messenger
some places created
some examples
steroids
what type of messengers
where do they go
some examples
A: proteins/polypeptides
most of bodys hormones
small to large
100 amino acids become polypeptides to proteins
made in RER -> golgi -> vessicles
receptors in/on cell surface (secondary messenger)
pituitary glands
parathryoid
pancreas (glucagon, insulin)
steroids
lipids (cholesterol)
steroid backbone with 4 member ring. 3 6 membered, one 5 membered.
made of lipids so can pass through membrane.
primary messengers.
affect transcription and translation
adrenal cortex and gonads
adrenal - cortisol aldosterone
gonads - test, progestone, estrogen
tyrosine derivatives
from tyrosines

Q: sperm egg and fertilization
acrosome
zona pelucida
plasma membrane
mitochondria
fertilization
A: acrozome is a bunch of enzymes
zone pelucida is a bunch of glycoproteins. brnaching sugar chain protein
edge of egg cell is plasma membrane inside zona
egg cells have 100-200k mitochondrias
fertilization
sperm head binds to zona pelucida and acrosomal enzymes leak out and digest away the zona pelucida
when the sperm touches the plasma membrane. it eats up the zona pelucida as well. chews up the glycoprotein that allows sperm to bind. cortical reaction. blocks to polyspermy
sperm fuses with the egg and the genetic material gets in

Q: embryogenesis
what is morula
blastulation
neural tube and neural crest cells
gastrulation
three layers called what
neurolation
A: zygote splits in 2 cells called cleavage
and this happens to 32 cells in the zona pelucida called morula
cells compact and differentiate into tropoblasts and embryoblasts
the embryoblasts clump together and leave a cavity called blastocoel
called a blastocyst. blastulation. zona pelucida disappears
then this
epiblasts and hypoblasts form a disk called bilaminar disk
primitive streak happens and differentiating cells go everywhere
form trilaminar disk
this is gastrulation
notochord forms in mesoderm differntiated cells that causes a change in ectoderm called thickening. called the neural plate
the neural plate dives and forms a tube structure calls the neural tube. as this happens cells from ectoderm and break into meso derm called neural crest cells
neural tube forms the CNS
neural crest cells migrate away form most of PNS

Q: germ layers
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
A: endoderm - gastrointestinal tract. lungs liver pancreas
mesoderm - inner skin, cardiac msucle, kidneys, bladder ovaries testes, heart, adrenal cortex
ectoderm - outer layer of skin, sweat gland, hair, nervous system, brain. adrenal medulla

Q: stem cell types
multipotent
pluripotent
totipotent
A: totipotent cells - found only in zygote and in embryo up to 8 cell division. can give rise to a whole organism. can different into any cell type placenta or embryonic
pluripotent - after 8 cells. blastocyst begins. hollow structure of trophoblasts on outside and inner cell mass which forms the embryo. inner mass cells are pluripotent and can gie rise to any of the germ layers but not in placental structures. more differentiated than pluripotent
multipotent - resident stem cells to preserve damaging tissue and replace damaged cells during life span. both in fetus and adults. can differentiate into cells of many different functions

Q: morphogens
A: signaling molecules whose concentration patterns influence cell differentiation.
released by signalign cells and diffuse out to alter gene expression in competent cells in a concetration dependent pattern

Q: paracrine
autocrine
juxtacrine
endocrine
signaling
A: endocrine - hormones are released, travel through bloodstream, and then attach to the target
paracrine - nearby signaling. cell releases signal and nearby cells get it
autocrine - cell releases signal and binds to same cell
juxtacrine - two cells are touching and placed right next to eachother

Q: blood pressure regulation
RAS
Aldosterone
ADH
vasopressin
A: RAS
juxtaglomeral cells in kidney secrete renin and compbine with angiotensiongn from liver. angiotensin 2 releases aldosterone from adrenal cortex and constriction of arterioles
Aldosterone
triggered from RAS or increased K+. acts on distal tubules and collecting ducts of nephrons. reabsorbs Na+ and secretes K+. increases osmolarity so water is retained.
ADH or Vasopressin
from posterior pituitary increases permeability of distal tubule and collecting duct to water. also does vasoconstriction

Q: kidneys
parts
function
renal cortex
renal medulla
renal calyx
renal pelvis
ureter
A: the unit is the nephron. renal cortex is the shell. renal medulla is the middle portion. renal calyx is where urine collects. renal pelvis is the central area. ureter is where the urine is sent to the bladder.
functions
filtration
collection
kidneys mantain homeostasis like the ph and blood pressure, osmolarity, and getting rid of waste (urea)
put out urine

Q: glomerular filtration in the nephron
steps
filtration effects from increasing diameter
A: arteriole off of the renal artery goes to the glomerulus. the part that exits the glomerulus is efferent arteriole.
bowmans capsule is where the filtrate comes out of the glomerulus.
point where arteriole meets the bowman capsule. endothelial cells lining the arteriole allow Na+ glucose and amino acids to go through. (fenestrated). podocytes are tubuler cells called epithelial cells. helps the connection for things to pass through
if you increase diameter of afferent arteriole, filtration increases
if you increase diameter of efferent, filtration decreases
opposite for decreasing.
then proximal convulated tubule absorbs sodium chlorida, A.A. and glucose. water is also reabsorbed
then goes to the loop of henle. descending limb which dives into kidney, and ascending limb goes up. renal medulla is very salty. descending limb only water goes through. ascending limb only ions go through.
this is called counter current mulitplication. water transports passively bc of the ion gradient from ascending limb. active transport in ascending limb of the ions.
then goes to distal convulated tubule. which kisses the glomerulus and forms juxtaglomerular apparatus (controls BP).
then goes to collecting duct. there are a lot of distal tubules that connect to DCT. collects things that are leftover in the lumen. reabsorb water. reabsorb urea -> drives water reabsorption mantains osmolarity.
the peritubular capillaries will collect all the good stuff in interstitium and form renal vein.
WHAT IS ABSORBED
proximal tubule - sodium attaches ATP comes and changes shape. sodium then goes outside. when open, K+ attaches which changes it back. Na+ goes out and K+ comes in using ATP. Na+/K+ ATPase. As sodium moves down its concetration gradient, it takes some glucose with it. glucose also gets absorbed. symporter - is when it takes another molecule with the sodium. secondary active transport
distal tubule - pumps sodium out. Ca+ goes out.

Q: urination
renal calyx
renal pelvis
ureter
bladder
internal sphincter
A: renal calyx to renal pelvis to ureter to bladder
bladder has transitional epithelial. allows bladder to expand. can hold a bunch of urine.
bladder to urethra. at the connection there is a internal urehtral sphincter. not under your control, smooth muscle.
female urethra vs male urethra
in females
after IUS there is a membranous. External urethral sphincter which is skeletal muscle bc its under your control. goes straight out.
in males doesnt go directly to EUS. there is a prostatic urethra. passes through prostate. then goes through membranous. with EUS. then goes to spongy urethra which is in the penis.
the valves prevent pee from going back up to ureter.

Q: bladder control
detrusor muscle
A: detrusor muscle relaxes when collection. contraction when pushes urine out to urethra.

Q: hormones that regulate GI tract
gastrin - released by what and when, and when stops?
secretin - when released and what
CCK
A: gastrin - released by the stomach when we realize there is food in the stomach. secretes digestive juices from mucosal cells.
gastrin releases HCL from parietal cellls
pepsinogen from chief cells in the stomach
increases stomach motility (breaks down food with chyme)
when ph is 3 gastrin release stops
.......
chyme moves to small intestine so goes to duodenum
.....
secretin bc of acidity and CCK because of fats
secretin released and goes to pancreas
pancreas releases bicarbonate rich solution HCO3-. releases pancreatic juices but the bicarbonate neutralizes the chyme so releases the base.
secretin also goes to stomach to tell stomach to stop releasing stuff.
also releases CCK
this is related to gallblader. released by intestinal mucosa.
stimulates pancreatic enzymes release for digestive process
releases lipase (breaks down lipids)
also goes to gallblader and tells it to contract. so it releases bile into the cystic duct, down the common bile duct, and into the duodenum to emulsify fat. CCK also decreases stomach motility.

Q: small intestine
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
A: duodenum - what recieves the chyme (most digestion)
stomach(chyme, HCL)
liver, gallbladder (byle)
pancreas (enzymes)
brush border enzymes - has projections called vili. increase surface area. microvili on vili.
proteins - brush border peptidase, pancreas - tripsinogen, chymotrypsinigoen, brush border enteropeptidase activate both gens.
carbs - pancrease gives amylase, brush border - lactase to break lactase. simple sugar left
nucleotides - brush border with nucleosiclases.
fatty acids - liver/gallblader - bile. organize the fat. pancrease releases lipase and gives out fatty acid chains.
.....
jejunum - most absorption
amino acids are transported through secondary active transport.
sugars - secondary transport through ion gradient
....
ileum - important absorption (vitamins)

Q: liver
what is it used for (metabolism, storage, etc)
A: metabolism (catabolic/ anabolic)
storage
carbs
fat - glycogen, lipoprotein, triglyceride
protein -> albumin -> blood stream
detoxification through cytochrome p450 which lowers drug efficacy
bile produciton
blood sources
portal triad
portal vein - nutrient rich
proper hepatic artery - oxygen-rich
common hepatic duct - bile
hepatic lobule is 6 sided structure around hepatocytes where the triad are there and then in the middle the central vein colects.

Q: biliary tree
bile made of
who makes it
who stores it
which ducts
which structure in the intestine gets it and which abosrbs it back
A: bile made of pigments and salts (emulsify salts)
liver makes bile and it leaves the liver with common hepatic duct. It then goes to cystic duct. and the gallbladder stores the bile. CCK causes gallblader to contract and it squeezes the bile through cystic duct and in the common bile duct straight into the duodenum.
bile salts emulsified will get absorbed in the ileum. bile salts then circulate back to the liver.

Q: exocrine pancreas
4 things it does
proteolytic steps
A: 1. bicarbonate - neutralize acids
2. lipase - tryglycerides to and backbones
3. amylase -  breaks down starch to smaller carbs
4. proteolytic
releases trypsinogen and chymotrypinsogen
both are zymogens(inactive)
enteropeptidase activates trypsinogen to trypsin and trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen.

Q: endocrine pancreas
which hormones to blood stream
A: many islet cells sit in islands.
1. alpha-islet - glucagon
breaks down glycogen into glucose
2. beta-islet - insulin
converts glucose to glycogen. build up storage. diabetes has too much glucose in the blood because insulin is not working. eye, nerve, kidney disease
diabetes type 1 - no insulin
diabetes type 2 - insulin receptors are broken. responders dont respond.
3. delta-islet - somatostatin
stops the job of all the hormones in the GI tract.

Q: colon, rectum and anus
large intestine purpose
A: mostly for absorbing water
rectum storage
anus smooth internal sphincter and skeletal is external

Q: henrys law
equation
A: there is a relatinship between pressure and concentration
It says that at constant temperature, the partial pressure of a gas is directly related to its solubility in a liquid. Thus, the higher the partial pressure, the more soluble (I.e will dissolve in) it is in the liquid.
You can apply this to the respiratory system. The more higher the partial pressure of oxygen is, the more it will dissolve in the blood. Likewise is true for carbon dioxide.

Q: grahams law of diffusion
rate and molecular weight relationship
A: Rate1 / Rate2 = sqrt (MW2 / MW1)
MW is molecular weight
inversely proprtional to sqrt

ficks law of diffusion
what to do to maximize rate of diffusion
what is diffusion constant

Q: g protein coupled receptors
how many alpha helices
A: 7 transmembrane loops. when ligand binds it makes a conformational change and exchanges GDP for GTP. The alpha subunit disaociates and regulates a target protein. This then relays a signal via a seondary messenger
epinephrine -> ATP to cAMP -> secondary messsenger.

Q: kinesins vs dinesin
A: Kinesin moves away ( moves away from nucleus anterograde)
dinesin moves towards nucleus ( retrograde)
K goes AWAY

Q: ribosomes
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic
rrna trna
A: ribosomes is where protein translation happens.
eukaryotic is 80S ribosome with 60 and 40s subunits
prokaryotic is 70S with 50 and 30s subunits
tRna's actually bind to the mrna and do the APE.
First A then P then E site where they exit.

Q: hardy weinberg equation
A: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
p + q = 1

Q: Endoplasmic reticulum and golgi
RER vs Smooth
secretory pathway
what does golgi do
what are parts of golgi
A: RER is where protein synthesis happens. there are ribosomes in it.
pt synthesis cytoplasm vs RER
in cytoplasm - they go to nucleus, mitochondria, perixosomes, or cytoplasm
RER - secreted, integrated proteins in cell membrane or to ER, golgi, lysosomes. also has post translational modificaitons (disulfied bridges)
Smooth -
synthesis of lipids for cell membrane and steroids
metabolizes carbs
aids in detox
secretory pathway - how does protein know to go to RER. all proteins are translated in cytoplasm but the signal sequence makes polypeptide to go to RER to finish translation.
golgi -
1. modifies proteins from RER
2. sorts and sends proteins to proper destinations
3. sysntheis of macromolecules for secretion
Golgi has different stacks RER to cis stack to medial stack to trans stack to lysosome.

Q: lysosomes and peroxisomes
autophagy vs crinophagy
what is PH
A: lysosomes - digest various small molecules and substances
autophagy - self eating
digests parts of the cell or other cells
organelles are no longer functional lyssomes eat
eat macrophages of immune system
crinophagy - digest excess secretory products
those broken down macromolecules are released
acid hydrolases are acidic ph 5. ph of cytoplasm is 7.4. if lysosomes burst its usually fine but if all the lysosomes burst together the cell does digest.
peroxisomes - isolate hydrogen peroxide and use catalase to produce H20 and 1/2 O2.

Q: apoptosis and necrosis
caspase
A: apoptosis is controlled
Apoptosis happens when
development
DNA damage
infection by viruses
environmental stress
reactive oxygen species
the outer mitochondrial membrane become more permeable.
BCL-2 family mediate this.
pro or anti.
favor is in anti normally.
if mito gets a signal then pro apop
cytochrome c can exit into the cytoplasm. These activate caspases in the cytoplasm which are a protease. breaks down after aspartate residue and breaks it down with cystiene.
necrosis doesnt use this enzyme

Q: endocrine gland hormones
hypothalamus
pituitary
thyroid
parathyroid
adrenal glands
gonads
pancreas
A: glands -> hormones -> effects
hypothalamus - control center of endocrine system. connects nerve signals and pituitary gland. but also releases ADH and oxytocin.
below hypothalamus is the
Pituitary gland - master gland
gets signal from hypothalamus and redirects it to other glands.
Thyroid gland -> in neck and next to trachea. regulates body metabolism through T3 and T4.
Right behind thyroid there is parathyroid which are 4 spots - regulates blood calcium levels. (PTH)
adrenal glands right on top of kidneys
Cortex (outside) - corticosteroids (cortisol, aldosterone)
Medulla (inside) - catecholamines (epi (adrenaline) and norepi)
Gonads -
males (testes) - testosterone.
females (ovaries) - estrogen, progesterone
Pancreas - upper part of abdomen
not directly involved with pituitary but controls blood sugar. through insulin and glucagon

Q: exocytosis
what happens
which tubules do they ride
A: vesicles merge with the membrane. the vesicles ride motor proteins along microtubules
kiss and run is when the vesicle just touches releases the stuff and then comes back in.

Q: microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules
A: microfilaments are involved in general movement. they allow cells to control their size and shape and move aorund. how amoebas move.
intermediate filaments are structural and provide anchor points. they hold the cell together
microtubules are involved in cell division and also function as highways that use motor protiens to transport vesicles organelles etc.

Q: bacterial growth curve
lag
log (exponential)
stationary
death
A: lag - active but takes adjustment
log - high growth
stationary - number of cells dying and produced are same
death - lots of dying.

Q: obligate aerobes
oblligate anaerobes
facultative anaerobes
aerotolerant anaerobes
microaerophiles
A: obligate aerobes - need oxygen
obligate anaer - cannot survive in oxygen
facultative - can live in both. grow faster in oxygen tho.
microaero - need oxygen to grow but high oxygen can poison them
aerotolerant - are oxygen tolerant.

Q: common disaccharides
maltose
lactose
sucros
A: maltose is 2 glucose with a alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkage
lactose is a glucose and a galactose which is a c4 epimer of glucose with a beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage
sucrose is with a glucose and a fructose but with both anomeric carbons so it's a alpha 1-2 glycosidic linkage. and is nonreducing.

Q: polysaccharides
glycogen
starch
cellulose
A: glycogen
common in animals and humans
glucose 1-4 bonds, but 1-6 every 10 bonds or so
starch has amylose which is a straight chain of 1-4 bonds. amylopectin has 1-6 but less common like every 30 bonds or so
cellulose has beta 1-4 bonds which are more rigid and linear.

Q: nucleolus role in ribosomal production
rRNA and protein subunits
A: nucleolus found in the nucleus and is the primary site of rRNA transcription by the RNA polymerase 1.
Ribosomal proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm are transported into the nucleolus.
they combine with the rRNA to form 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits. that mature in the cytoplasm

Q: dna condensing order
what are histones and how does it affect transcription
A: histones -> nucleosome -> solenoid -> supercoils -> chromatin -> chromosome
histones are positively charged which bind to DNA tightly because it's negatively charged.
histone acetylation messes with the positvely charged histones so they bound less tightly forming euchromatin and more transcripotin
DNA mehtylation is when methyl group is added to the cytosine which messes up binding of transcription factors.

Q: sds page vs agarose gel electrophoresis vs native gel
A: proteins are smaller so they use polyacrylamide gel and DNA use gel electrophoresis
small molecules travel further to the positivve side anode.
native gel just keeps the proteins how they are without adding a charge or breaking interactions

Q: eukaryotic vs prokaryotic DNA
A: eukaryotic is double stranded and condensed into a histone wrapped linear chromosome with ends capped with telomeres to prevent DNA from unraveling
prokaryotic are double stranded DNA and condensed in a circular chromosome that has no telomere or associated histones

absolute refractory period
relation of K+ and Na channels

Q: pituitary gland hormones
anterior and posterior
A: anterior hormones are
indirect, tropic (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, GH) and direct, nontropic (GH, prolactin, endorphins)
posterior hormones are
direct (oxytocin, ADH)
synthtesis and secretion of hormones from anterior pituitary is stimulated by neurohormones in blood by hypothalamic neurons. secretion of hormones in posterior pituitary induced by depolarization of nerve terminals.
synthesis of posterior hormones are in hypothalamic neurons and undergo anterograde axonal transport.

Q: endothelial vs epithelial cells
A: endothelial cells are a single cell layer that makes up the innermost surface of the cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels). the endothelium promotes blood fluidity and functionas as a selective barrier between blood and tissue.
epithelial cells make up outer layer of skin, secretory component of glands and lining of inner cavity and GI tract.

Q: osteoblasts and osteoclasts
which take calcium and potassium from blood
A: OsteoBlasts BUILD bone - take calcium and potassium from blood stream

Q: parathyroid hormone vs calcitonin vs growth hormone
A: low blood calcium level stimulates the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH, which then promotes several things to elevate blood calcium level. this increases activity of osteoclasts which breakdown bone and gets the calcium
high blood calcium levels promote osteoblast activity. secreted by the thyroid gland. calcitonin mostly tones down osteoclasts activity
growth hormone released by pituitary and promotes osteoblast in kids

Q: male anatomy
testes
epididymis
ductus deferens
seminal glands
prostate
bulbourethral glands
penis
A: testes - reproductive glands that produce sperm
epididymis - long coiled tube where immobile sperm becomes mobile. where mature sperm is stored until release
ductus deferens - long tube that transfers mature sperm to urethra
seminal glands - produce largest portion of seminal fluid
prostate - gland that produces prostatic fluid containing enzymes necessary to prevent coagulation of sperm in vagina
bulbourethral - glands that secrete thick alkaline mucus to lubricate the tip of the penis. aalkalinity neutralizes acids in the urine to protect the sperm from acidic environment
penis - exterior organ that jacks off

Q: relation between
rib cage
intrapleural pressure
diaphragm
during inspiration and contration
internal and external intercostals
A: during inspiration
diaphragm (skeletal muscle) contracts
it flattens and pulls down on the lungs causing them to expand.
the intercostal muscles of the rib cage can contract to elevate the rib cage which further expands the lungs
when the thoracic cavity exapdns intrapleural space decreases and the negative pressure pulls the lungs causing them to expand.
the external intercostals are inspiratory muscles and the internal intercostals are expiratory muscles.

Q: DNA strand expansion
how does one nucleotide attack another
A: 5' to 3'
so 3' hydroxyl of the growing strand attacks the 5' a-phosphate of the dNTP

Q: lipids
hydrolyzable vs not
which types fit in what
A: hydrolyzable ones
energy storage
- triglycerol
structural
- phospholipids
literally same structure as triglycerol but one of the fatty acids is a phosphodiester. at ph7 the hydrogen is deprotonated.
- sphingolipid
sphingosine backbone instead of glycerol. structure in nerve cells. part of myelin and ABO blood. just 1 head and 1 fatty acid tail.
- waxes
esther two carbon chains bonds
super hydrophobic.

Q: fatty acid structure and membrane fluidity
what increases fluidity
A: shorter the chain less interactions
more unsaturated (more double bonds) more cis bonds which leads to decreased interactions

Q: michaelis menten
enzyme concentration relation to Vmax
A: Vmax changes with enzyme concentration. Km does not change because it's technically a constant. You have to fundamnetlaly change something to the enzyme to change KM

Q: gap junctions in cardiac cells and smooth muscle cells and skeletal cells
wb sarcomeres
A: skeletal cells do not have so can't propogate ions and action potentials between cells
smooth and cardiac can
skeletal and cardiac have sarcomeres so appear straited.

Q: 3 types of endocytosis
pinocytosis
phagocytosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis
A: pinocytosis - the membrane pinches off. invagination
phagocytosis - there is a large object so membrane extension
receptor mediated - ligand binds and this inward buds

Q: spleen functions
there are 3
A: storage of blood
filters aged/damaged RBC's
immune response (B cell activation sit, housing macrophages

Q: steroid hormones relation to cholesterol
cholesterol basic block
A: all derived from cholesterol
basic block is a isoprene -> monoterpene -> -> diterpene -> triterpene-> squalene -> cholesterol

Q: reflex arc
what are ganglia
A: ganglia are a collection of neuron cell bodies that lie outside the CNS
sensory neurons bring it in pre and post send it out
descending pathway from the brian can synapse directly on the preganglionic neurons of the braibn
interneurons are in between the sensory and muscular neurons

Q: nervous system branching
central vs peripheral
sensory vs motor
somatic vs autonomic
sympathetic vs parasympathetic
A: peripheral encompasses sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
somatic is skeletal muscles
autonomic is smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
symp and parasymp are a part of autonomic

Q: female reproductive cycle
oogenesis
oocytes
oogonia
primary oocyte
egg development process
A: oogenesis are all the eggs created until baby is 7th months old.
oogonia are germ cells (2n) and create them. they are a primary ooctye and in meiotic arrest
primary oocyte meiosis1 happens and one egg gets all the cytoplasm so the other egg dies and becomes polar body
when secondary oocyte is fertilized then it forms ovum and does mieosis 2 if not it just gets ovulated after meiosis 1

Q: X inactivation
A: XX females - some disorders have it
When looking at nucleus in every cell, one of the X chromosomes are active, and one are inactive.
barr body is the inactivated x chromosome
when you are a zygote you will have 2 X chromosomes and it will be copied.
one of the X chromosomes will get deactivated at the blastula phase. And one that's left propogates their activated X one.
it's a coin flip.

Q: kidney where do ions get abosrbed
A: proximal, distal, and collecting duct

Q: positive vs negative controls
A: negative controls you are never expected to see a change
positive controls you should see a change everytime

Q: voltage gated ion channels when do they trigger
A: they usually activate upon a change in membrane potential caused by other ion channels

Q: neurotransmitters of
preganglionic neurons
postganglionic neurons
A: all pregangloionic neurons of the ANS release ACh
postganglionic of the PNS release ACh and postgangloinic of SNS release norepi

Q: PFK-2 and F2,6BP when insulin is bound
A: when insulin is bound it activates the synethsis of F2,6BP with PFK2
which activates PFK-1. In the liver F2,6BP inhibits fructose 1-6 bisphosphatse which inhibits gluconeogenesis in the liver.

Q: short medium and long chained fatty acids
where are the activated
where are they oxidized
A: short are (<5 carbons)
medium are 6-12 carbons
long more than 12 carbons
short and medium CFA's enter the mito through simple diffusion but LCFA's have to be activated in the cytoplasm to enter by converting to acylcartnitine.

Q: where are all of the digestion and abosprtion of macromolecules happen?
A: all in small intestine. Only undigestible material passes through large intestine

Q: large intestine ordering
A: cecum
ascending colon
transverse colon
descending colon
sigmoid colon
rectum

Q: myelinated neurons
what are the spaces called
what is the jumping of action potentials called
increasing axon diameter would do that
A: they are nodes of ranvier where those are the only openings. since they have minimal openings the transmission is a lot faster.
saltatory conduction
increasing axon diameter would also increases AP speed due to less resistance.

Q: adrenal gland
cortex
medulla
which listens to the pituitary and via what
what stimulus releases each of the hromones of cortex and medulla
cortex vs medulla
type of hormone
solubility
action
raw material
stimulus
A: cortex -
mineralcorticoids - aldosterone (raises serum sodium so mineral), angiotensin 2 releases
ACTH releases these
glucorticoids - cortisol (raise ur blood glucose)
adrogens
medulla -
epi and norepi these are catecholamines. released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers
cortex are steroids, medulla is catecholamines
cortex are lipid soluble, medulla are water soluble
cortex are slow action bc lipid gotta cross lipid bilayer, medulla is quick because receptors are on cell surface
cortex made of cholesterol, medulla made of tyrosine
cortex stimulated by RAAS/ACTH, medulla stimulated by preganglionic sympathetic fibers
cortex hypersecretion from conns, cushings
hyposecretion from addisons

Q: norepi and epi
secreted from what
effect on blood vessels in the intestine, kidney, abdominal
vs
heart and skeletal msucles
A: secreted from adrenal medulla
vasoconstriciton in instestines, kidney, abdominal organs
vasodilation leading to heart and skeletal muscles so more oxigen

Q: long chain fatty acid journey from cytosol to mitochondria
A: the fatty acid is activated with acetyl coa and this requires an ATP to turn into acyl coa
this gets tranfered into intermembrane space
the acyl coa reacts with carnitine to form acylcarnitine and then acylcarnitine translocase located in inner mito membrane recognizes it and brings it into the mito matrix.
acylcarnitine is then converted back to acyl coa and carnitine and beta oxidation happens

incomplete vs codominance

Q: thyroid pathway
what it does
A: low thyroid makes hypothalamus release TRH
the TRH acts on anterior pituitary to release TSH.
TSH binds to TSH receptors on thyroid gland to release T2 and T4 which increase cellular metabolism.
the hormones are also in negative feedback loop by inhibiting TRH and TSH

Q: reducing sugars
mono vs di
different tests
tollens
benedict fehlings
A: reducing sugars have hemiacetal or ketal. disaccharides like sucrose are nonreducing
all monosaccharides are
free aldehyde or ketone makes it reducing
tollens test turns silver
benedict and fehlings turn from blue to red if reducing

Q: stomach secretions
cell type and what they release
G cells - gastrin
parietal cells - HCL acid, intrinsic factors
chief cells - pepsinogen, gastric lipase
mucous cells - mucus and bicarbonate
what activates pepsinogen
A: gastrin signals parietal cells to secrete HCL acid
HCL acid is primary component of gastric juice, activates proteolytic enzymes, kills microbes and denatures proteins
intrinsic factors - aid in absorption of B12 in ileum
pepsinogen - zymogen (inactive form) of pepsin, which cleaves polypeptides into smaller peptides when activated by the low PH of gastric juice
gastric lipase - hydrolysis of lipids
mucus and bicarb - protect the stomach walls from autodigestion of gastric juice

Q: hormones of digestive tract
where and what they do
gastrin
ghrelin
secretin
CCK
A: gastrin in small intestine and stomach - signals parietal cells to secrete HCL
ghrelin in stomach and small intestine - binds hypothalamus and pituitary receptors to signal for increased food intake and increase GH release
secretin - stops release of gastric acid and increases bicarbonate release from pancreas and liver
CCK - increases secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes and bile from the gallblader.

Q: subviral particles
all acellular - cant make ATP, cant reproduce = need a host
viruses
viroids
prions
A: viruses - have a protein coat, have DNA or RNA, and sometimes a lipid membrane
viroids - smaller than viruses. circular RNA. mostly found in plans but now in Hep D. no protein coats. don't code for proteins
has cRNA - catalytic, C. can make or break covalent bond. can self-cleave.
prions - no genetic material. only proteins. prion is in a beta sheet confirmation. when the beta sheets attack enough alpha helix which changes it into a beta sheet and starts protein deposits. secondary structure

Q: all about viruses
what type of genomic material
protein covering and lipid envelope
bacteriophages
lytic vs lysogenic pathway
what is provirus
A: can have RNA or DNA but never both
have a protein covering called a capsid and in some cases have a lipid envelope that is obtained from cells. this lipid coat can have receptor proteins that can bind to cells.
viruses have to infect living cells
bacteriophages are viruses that only target bacterial cells. they attach cell membrane and inject nucleid acids into cytoplasm. they can then translate and synthesize their own proteins
two pathways
lytic cycle
as soon as virus is in the cell it synthesizes the capsid and nucleid acids and creates a bunch of viruses and then it bursts releasing a bunch of viruses. viruses outside of the cell are virions.
the period between infection and lysing is called the latent period
lysogenic phase -
viral DNA is incorporated into host DNA. certain viruses like HIV contain RNA and a special enzyme that can transcribe DNA from the RNA and then can be included into the host DNA. once incorporated the virus can show no sign of infection (dormant period) and then once there is some catalyst like UV rays it can turn into lytic cycle.
a cell with genome of viral is provirus.

Q: hemoglobin cooperativity
what are the two states
A: Starts at T tense state with not much affinity and goes to R state which is a lot more O2 affinity

Q: bohr effect vs haldane effect
A: CO2 H+ affect binding of Hb for O2
and Also O2 affects the affinity of Hb for Co2/H+
bohr effect -
lower pH with high CO2 and H+ you see a right shift in oxygen saturation curve

Q: hematocrit is
A: the measure of blood cell volume as a percentage of total blood volume

Q: Shifters of oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve
right and left
h+
temp
altitiude
2-3 BPG
A: right shifters
decrease of ph
increase of temp
increase of altititude
increase of 2-3 BPG
left shifters
increase of ph
decrease of temp
decrease of altitude
decrease of 2-3 BPG

Q: specific activity of a protein
A: is ratio of the activity of the target protein to the total mass of the protein
total activity is the product of the total protein mass and specific activity.

Q: sugars from fischer projection
When is is D or L
and when is it a or B
A: in D sugars the second to last carbon is to the right
naturally occuring sugars are D
for a or B
it's a for D sugars with anomeric hydroxyl is to the right and B for when its on the left
opposite for L sugars.

Q: ascending limb of a nephron
A: NaCl is first passively transported, then it's actively transported as it approaches near cortex which mantains the water reabsorption

Q: amino acids relative and absolute
A: all amino acids are L configuration look at the amine group and its on left
Typically all amino acids are S configuration except cysteine bc of the sulfur and glycine bc it has no designation.

Q: mutagens
A: agents that promote genetic mutations or increase their frequency.
mutagens can be categorized as physical mutagens, reactive chemicals or biological agents.

Q: capillar hydrostatic pressure
capillar oncotic pressure
interstitial fluid hydrostatic
interstitial fluid oncotic pressure
A: capillar hydrostatic pressure - the pressure that fluid in capillaries exert on cell walls
capillar oncotic pressure - the pulling force of the solutes in the blood that pull water in
interstitial fluid hydrostatic - the pressure that fluid in interstitium exert on cell walls
interstitial fluid oncotic pressure - the pressure of solutes in interstitium that draw water out.

Q: cori cycle
when is it used
A: when anaerobic excercise is going on, you are using glucose in the muscles and it turns into pyruvate to generate ATP but cant go to krebs. So it's converted to lactate
lactate is toxic so it goes to the blood to the liver and gluconeogenesis happens there to turn lactate into pyruvate then glucose and regenerate the nadh to redo glycolysis.

Q: gene leakage
A: when hybrid offspring successfully mate with members of either parental species.
transfer of genetic information between different species

Q: cholesterol and cell membrane
high temp
low temp
A: at high temp it increases rigidity by raising melting point
at low temp it intercalates between phospholipids preventing them from clustering up

Q: eukaryotes vs bacteria vs archae
A: eukaryotes include protists fungi plants and animals - membrane bound organelles
archae - do rna and dna replication similarly to eukaryotes, but they reproduce asexually and dont have membrane bound organelles. are extremophiles. can use a bunch of sources of energy. circular dna
bacteria - single celled and no membrane bound. circular dna. symbiotic or pathogenic. gram negative are more resistatnt

Q: prokaryotes vs eukaryotes introns
A: prokaryotes have noncoding sequences but they are not interspersed like eukaryotes do.

Q: various electrons for these molecules
NADH
FADH2
FMNH2
FE-S
Ubiquinone
Cytochrome C
A: NADH - 2 electron transfer, also uses H+ to blanace reaction
FADH - 2 electron but one or two at a time
FMNH2 - holds 2, transfers two at a time
FE-S - holds 1
Ubiquinone - Holds 2, transfers one at a time
Cytochrome C - holds 1

Q: microtubules vs microfilaments
A: microtubules - are transport kinesin and dyneine
microfilaments - are force of movement so like actin filaments to myosin to create contractions or cytokinesis during mitosis

Q: oogenesis vs spermatogenesis
A: for oogenesis every month after puberty it goes through meiosis 1, but its halted at mieosis 2 metaphase 2 until its fertilized.

Q: sertoli cells
leydig cells
A: in the seminiferous tubules, where spermatogenesis happens, sertoli cells are responsible for providing nutrients to sperm cells and regulating cell development
leydig cells secrete testosterone found in interstitual fluid

Q: female reproductive parts
ovaries
uterine tubes
uterus
cervix
vagina
A: ovaries - reproductive organs that produce oocytes via oogenesis and secrete hormones
uterine tubes is what connects ovary to uterus and where fertilization happens
uterus is what protects and nourishes the embryo and fetus. it is lined with endometrium which changes thickness at given points. the uterus also includes a thick layer of smooth muscle (myometrium) which is involved in contractions during child birth.
cervix is the most inferior portion of the uterus and serves as the opening into the vagina

Q: barriers to hybridization (what causes reproductive isolation)
prezygotic barriers
postzygotic barriers
A: prezygotic (barriers occuring before zygote formation)
- temporal isolation
- ecological isolation
- behavioral isolation
- mechanical isolation
- gametic isolation
postzygotic (barriers after zygote formation)
- hybrid sterility - organism produced by mating of different species may not be able to produce fertile offspring itself
- hybrid inviability - organism produced by the mating of different species may not develop normally leading to death
- hybrid breakdown - second generation produced by successful mating of two hybrid organisms may not be healthy.

Q: skeletal structure
endoskeleton
some functions
flat bones vs long bones
parts of the long bone (diaphysis, metaphysis, epiphysis)
A: humans have endo skeleton
some functions
1. supports and framework for movement
2. protects vital organs
3. physiological storage of calcium and hematopoisis
the skull and spine is axial skeleton
the limbs are appendicular skeleton
flat bones
ex - skull, ribs, pelvis
have inner spongy (cancellous) outer shell compact
protects organs
hematopoisis
long bones
ex - humerus, femur
middle poriton is diaphysis. the end is epiphysis and the part that grows is the metaphysis and its between.

Q: cartillage
collagen and elastin
hyaline
elastic
fibrous
A: made by chondrocytes which is from precursor fibroblasts
makes collagen and elastin which are components of cartillage. both give strength and flexibility. they dont have vascularity and not innervated.
hyaline cartillage -
in all joins, trachea, larynx
reduce friction and reduce shock
elastic
epiglottis and ear
for shape and support
fibrous
intervertebral disks and pubic joins
rigidity and shock

Q: ligaments
tendons
joints
A: ligaments are bones to bones
tendons are muscle to bones
where one bone meets another is a joint
synarthroses
-immovable joints
-skull
anphiarthrosis
-slightly moveable
-vertebral joints
synovial joints (diarthrosis
-ball and socket shoulder and hip
-hinge
-synovial fluid
all joints have
-articular cartilage hyaline cartilage

Q: antibodies form mostly what type of bonds
A: most noncovalent interactions when binding proteins to epitopes

Q: how many donors and acceptors for each nucleotides
thymine/uracil
adenine
cytosine
guanine
A: thymine - 1 donor, 1 acceptor
adenine - 1 donor, 1 acceptor
cytosine - 1 donor, 2 acceptor
guanine - 2 donor, 1 acceptor

Q: DNA repair
exonuclease activity
endonuclease activity
A: if there are issues at the end it uses exonuclease activity.
3' -> 5' means that it can fix issues on the 3' growing end
in the case of a mismatch within a DNA they use endonuclease acitivyt to remove the mispaired and adjacent nucleotide and polymerase adds it back and ligase sticks it together.
in the case of UV rays and thymine dimers are created. endo nuclease cleaves the dna strand and damaged dna. polymerase comes and ligase seals.

Q: antibodies
A: antibodies are also called Ig.
consist of four polypeptide subunits. They bond using disulfide bonds and form a Y strucutre. There are two heavy chains and two light chains.
constant region doesn't change much between antibodies
the variable regions is built to have a specific sequence of amino acids that can bind onto a specific antigen. variable segment is antigen-binding site
the region of antigen that binds to antigen-binding site is epitope.
the constant regions determine whether it's IgG or igD, etc.
3 different mechanisms when it forms the complex
1) free floating antibody binds to virus antigen
2) agglutination. antibody antigen complex can all clumb together and aggregate and inactive the pathogen.

Q: what is kcat = to
A: kcat = vmax / [enzyme]

Q: krebs cycle regulators
down and up
A: down by NADH, ATP, citrate and succinyl coa
up by ADP and calcium

Q: transcription
noncoding and coding strand directionality
A: mRNA transcribed off of noncoding or template strand.
so the coding strand sense strand is the same sequence and directionality as mRNA besides there is T instead of U

Q: spliceosomes donor sites vs acceptor sites
A: they remove introns by locating sequences within introns called 5' splice donor sites and 3' acceptor sites.

Q: average molecular weight of amino acid
A: 110 Da which is one amu.

Q: mean arterial blood pressure and cardiac output
A: MAP = CO * Vascular resistance

Q: neurotransmitters pre and post ganglioinic for parasympathetic and sympathetic
A: both use acetylcholine pre. but post parasympathetic use acetylcholine and sympathetic uses norepinephrine

Q: separating enantiomers
A: chiral chromatography with chiral stationary phase

Q: resolving agent
A: allows you to create diastereomers with the addition of a resolving agent so then you can separate based on property differences. but mostly physical.

adrenal cortex
gluco vs mineral

Q: tissue types
epithelial - where is it. simple or stratified
connective - where is it
A: epithelial - outer layer of skin and outer layer of organs, lumen of organs, inside of cavities.
one layer thick or stratified. simple epithelium are alveoli. stratified in esophagus.
avascular.
connective tissue - bone, cartilage, blood, lymph, adipose, membranes of brain and sc.

Q: urea messes up what protein structure
A: noncovalent

Q: western blot what are the steps
A: utilizes antibodies to detect the presence of a protein in some sample
isolate the protiens through cell lysate the centrifuge
then you put the proteins into a SDS gel. polyacrilimide.
once you get the separation you transfer it to a polymer sheet called a protein binding membrane.
where the protein is not laid you can blocking proteins like BSA or low fat milk to prevent antibodies from binding to the binding membrane
then you mix the sheet with the primary antibody. and one of the bands will bind the antibody because it will be specific to a protien.
then the secondary antibody binds to the primary antibody which is radioactive labeled. so it lets you visualize.
then you put it under xray you can see exactly see which one is lit up and which protein it is.

Q: muscles review
what is I band
A band
H zone
M line
Z line
what happens to zones during contraction
A: H band gets smaller
A band stays the same
I band gets smaller
I band is only thin filaments
A band is thick + thin
H is just thick

Q: divergent vs parallel vs convergent evolution
A: divergent is same lineage but evolving apart to be more different. (bats and horses). but both have wings and hoof which are homologous structures
parallel same lineage and evolving closer together to be similar.
convergent is different lineage but evolving closer together to be similar using different mechanisms.

Q: sperm chain know it for sure and where
A: spermatogonia - stem cells
they divide by mitosis to mantain one stem cell and one turns into spermatocyte
the spermatocyte turns into spermatids after completion of meiosis 2
spermatids become spermatozoa through loss of cytoplasm, acrosome formation, mitochondrial mid piece and development of tail.
then they get the tail in the epididymis.

Q: osteocytes
A: are living cells buried in organic materials and differentiate from osteoblasts
they have dendrites that enter a channel called canaliculus
they communicate through the gap junctions in canaliculi

Q: bone structure
osteon
lamellae
canalliculi
lacunae
osteocytes
volksmann and haversian
periosteum
A: osteon is a cylindrical layer that has concentric rings called lamellae
in the middle there are haversian canal where blood lymph and nerve travel.
between sheets of lamalla there is lacunae which is empty space for bone cells (osteocytes)
tiny canals called canaculi that extend from haversian canal go to osteocytes
volksmann canals perpendicular to haversian canals are small blood vessels
superficial layer is periosteum

Q: conjugation
transformation
transduction
transfection
A: conjugation is the transfer of genetic material through direct contact. F factor plasmid is a circular piece of dna that contains genes that form the sex pilus. donor cell attaches to recipient (does not contain F factor)
transformation is uptake of foreign DNA from the environment
transduciton is DNA transfer from one cell to another by a bacteriophage
transfection is process by which genetic material usually in form of a plasmid is tranferred to eukaryotic cell

Q: mechanical digestion
A: emulsification from bile created in liver and stored in gallbladder does it.
also chewing and chruning of stomach with peristaltic waves

Q: cardiac sphincter and pyloric sphincter
A: cardiac is the lower esophageal sphincter and is a muscular ring located at hte junction of the esophagus and the stomach.
pyloric sphincter controls the flow of chyme from the stomach to the duodenum

Q: stomach secretions
g cells (gastrin)
parietal cells (hcl acid intrinsic factor)
chief cells (pepsinogen, gastric lipase)
mucous cells( mucus and bicarbonate)
A: gastrin from g cells tells parietal cells to secrete hcl
parietal cells secrete hcl acid which secretes proteolytic enzymes and also intrinsic factor which absorbs b12 in ileium
chief cells secrete pepsinogen which is inactivated form of pepsin and cleaves polypeptides activated by low ph. they also secrete gastric lipase which hydrolyses lipids in stomach
mucuous cells secrete mucus and bicarbonate which protects stomach walls from autodigestion

Q: CCK and secretin
A: acid releases secretin
when chyme is in the duodenum, secretin is released into blood stream. it first goes to pancreas which releases bicarbonate rich material to neutralize acid. secretin also goes to stomach which stops stomach actions
fat in chyme releases
CCK also releases pancreatic enzymes (lipase, chymotripsin, amylase), also arrives at gallblader which causes it to contract. bile goes to cystic duct to common bile duct. It also decreases stomach motility

Q: functions of liver cells
A: regulation of blood glucose with glycogenolysis, glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis
storage of glycogen minerals and vitamins
synthesis of macromolecules such as plasma proteins (clotting factor and albumin), fats, ketone bodies and cholesterol
productino and secretion of bile
breakdown detox of metabolic wastes (bilirubin, ammonia)

Q: citric acid cycle intermediates
what do they all have in common (structure)
A: they all are flanked with carboxylate ions on the main carbon chain

dendritic cells
macrophages
basophils
mast cells
neutrophils
eosinophils
NK cells

Q: posterior pituitary hormones how are they released
A: made in the hypothalamus and stored within axons (neuronal cells) projecitng into the posterior pituitary. when stimulated axons release the stored hormones into blood vessels

Q: tropic hormones
A: hormones that influence other hormones. they can target endocrine tissues to influence the secretion of another hormone

Q: long bones
three parts (end, middle, inner)
where are condrocytes and what do they do.
A: the end is epiphyses
middle is metaphysis
inner is diaphysis
chondrocytes produce collagen to which calcium phosphate attaches to form hardened bone. chondrocytes are located at the interface between the long shaft and the widened ends of long bones. cartilagaeous region is called epiphyseal growth plate which increaes the bones length.

Q: gram negative vs gram positive
cell walls
thickness
A: gram negative has a outer membrane and a thin peptidog layer
gram negative doesnt have a outter layer but has a thick layer of peptidog. stians purple

Q: main effect of PTH parathyroid hormone
A: increases serum calcium concentration. triggered by decreased plasma calcium. this increases osteoclast activity, promotes bone breakdown and releases ionic calcium in the blood

Q: vitamin d
where is it created and relation to calcium
A: PTH sstimulates syntehsis of active form of vitamin d in the kidneys and vitamine d promotes absorption of dietary calcium from small intestine

Q: g protein coupled receptor
inactive vs on state
A: in the inactive state GDP is bound
upon ligand binding GTP binds in place of GTP causing activation of phospholipase C

Q: cell junctions
tight junctions
desmosomes
gap junctions
A: things that connect cells to other cells. typically in epithelial tissue
tight junctions - connects two cells together. super tight and water tight seal. in bladder intestines, kidney, doesnt let water or anything to leave
desmosomes - connections between two cells that connect from inside the cytoskeleton. water and ions can flow through. in tissues with a lot of stress. provide tensile strength by anchoring cytoskeletons specifically the intermediate filaments of two cells. this way mechanical stress is distributed and prevents tissue tearing.
gap junctions - there is kind of like a tunnel in between the cells. water and ions can flow through. can be found in cardiac muscle which can propogate the action potential. bidirectional transport

Q: cation exchange chromatography vs anion
A: cation binds cations and have negatively charged beads
anions bind anions and have positively charged beads

Q: affinity chromatagrophy
A: takes advantage of specific protein ligand interaction. which allows desired protein to bind specifically and strongly to the column.
to elute it you can use a competing substance in the mobile phase.

Q: when doing ion exchange chromatagrphy
when do u use high salt and low salt
A: low salt when loading so that you can bind
when they are bound then you can elute by increasisng salt compound which bind to the column and exchange your proteins

Q: g protein coupled receptor
what is primary and secondary messenger
A: primary is the extracellular signal
once the conformational change happens and GTP binds and alpha subunit dissociates it triggers adenylate cyclase to convert ATP to cAMP and cAMP is the secondary messenger.
effector is the AC

Q: catalytic efficiency
A: measures the specificity of an enzyme for a substrate and is calculated by kcat/km .
kcat = vmax / E

Q: ligase vs lyase
A: ligase joins two molecules with ATP
lyase breaks a bond and creates a double bond

Q: thyroid gland
what does is secrete
what are the hormones made out of
A: secretes T3 and T4, T3 is more potent
thyroid hormones produce calcitonin which promotes bone resorption over bone deposition
calcitriol is most active vitamin d and less active vitamin D supplements stimulate calcium absorption. calcitonin tones it down
iodine is necessary for the synthesis of theyroid hormones

Q: pka values of amino acids based on whether they are protonated or not
A: if protonated it means they dissociate less so Ka is smaller therefore Pka is larger

Q: kd dissociation constant
A: is xy -> x + y
so x + y / xy or with rate constants is the
k unbinding / k binding

Q: ping pong vs ternary complex
A: enzymatic reactions iwth more than one substrate
ping pong - one substrate binds first and reacts, changing the structure of the enzyme itself. then it leaves and another substrate comes restoring the enzyme to original. always ordered
ternary complex can be the enzyme and two substrates. some form in random order and some are in specific order.

Q: hill coefficient
A: between 0-1 is negative coopretivity
1 is no cooperativity
>1 is positive cooperativity.

Q: types of muscles
type 1
type 2a
type 2x
A: type 1 - slowest contracting, lots of mitochondria and capillaries, fatigue resistant and the most used on earth. prevalent in posture
type 2a - fast contract, lots of mitochondria. fatigue resistant
type 2x - fast twitch, contract fast, but much lower mitochondrial density. reliant on anaerobic metabolism. these are the fastest

Q: ghrelin and leptin released from what
A: leptin released from white adipocytes to trigger appetite suppresion via the hypothalamus
ghrelin screted by gastric cells to trigger hunger and food seeking behavior.

Q: cDNA creation
A: RNA by RNA polymerase is created by antisense strand so it is the same as DNA sense strand but with Uracil instead of Thymine.
cDNA is complement of that so its antisense strand of RNA.

Q: apo vs holo enzymes
A: holoenzyme has its cofactor
apoenzyme is when the cofactor is removed
holo means whole
apo means off

Q: thermodynamic stability of DNA duplex
A: DNA length - longer takes more time to melt and reanneeal
pH - pH outside physiological range leads to loss of hydrogen bonding
salt concentration - high salt stabalizes the helix stabiliy by stabalizing the phosphate groups

Q: fatty acid synthesis
what is rate limiting step
what electron carrier is needed
what does ACC create
how does fatty acid synthase work
how many NADPH and why
A: rate limiting step is ACC for acetyl coa + bicarbonate to malonyl coa
fatty acid synthase has two SH groups where one is able to attack the malonyl coa and each successive attack releases a CO2. Once attached to the already there chain it has to release the carbonyl so its reduced once with NADPH and then reduced another time to get rid of double bond

Q: why are ketone bodies produced
A: liver produces ketone bodies because acetyl coa is not easily transferrable in the blood and across blood brain carrier
so during starved states. glucose gets used. glycogen gets used and then gluconeogenesis starts to occur. for gluconeogensis it needs ATP becaues its anabolic. so beta oxidation happens to create acetyl coa and ATP.
the oxaloacetate combines with amino acids to produce glucose. and now there is a bunch of acetyl coa which comes together to form acetoacetyl coa this forms HMG coa.
HMG coa lyase creates acetyl coa and acetoacetate. acetoacetate is important and this can form hydroxybutyrate and acetone. but acetone dont do shit

Q: how does protein breakdown happen
protein to amino acids
A: amino acid the amine part is secreted with urea and the other part goes into TCA
the amino acids go into transamination and create glutamate.
the amino is left into ammonia and goes into urea cycle
urea cycle happens in liver. uses ornithine.

Q: how does glycerol go back to glucose
A: it is converted to Glycerol 3 phosphate then DHAP and then G3P which is then produced glucose

Q: genomic imprinting
A: when you can get the allele for mom or dad but it is only expressed if only your mom or your dad had it. inheritance is parent specific bc one is silenced

Q: in dimers what areas interact
A: hydrophobic regions will interact because the hydrophilic portions will be fucking with water.

Q: maltose
sucrose
lactose
A: sucrose is fructose and glucose
maltose is 1-4 alpha glucose
lactose is glucose galactose b 1-4

Q: D-glucose
D-mannos
D-ribose
A: glucose is all fingers in and middle finger out
galactose is index and middle out
ribose is no fingers out
down right uplefting
and then last carbon if left is L if on right its D

Q: protein folding
A: its cooperative

Q: oxidative phase of PPP
two enzymes and intermediate
A: glucose 6 phosphate to 6-phosphogluconolactone with NADPH amd glucose 6 phosphate dehyd
then another intermiedate to 6 phopshopglucononate
6 phosphogluconate to ribulose 5 phosphate and produces another NDH 6 phosphogluconate dehyd

Q: indole and imidazole
A: indole is what tryptophan has
imidazole is what histidine has